The Laptop Gardener

Once easy-to-grow seeds such as marigolds are mastered, it is time to tackle plants that are a little more challenging.

Starting seeds is an extremely rewarding activity and even trying to germinate some of the challenging seeds can be very successful if a little research is done to find out which techniques should be used.

If certain basic conditions are met, most annual and vegetable seeds do not require special treatment to achieve a high percentage of germination. The seed, which must be viable and mature, needs a proper balance of environmental conditions (moisture, temperature, light and air). Some more challenging seeds have natural inhibitors to germination and require special treatment. Such inhibitors include: a small dust-like size; a hard moisture-proof seed coat; a reluctance to germinate until maturity; a chemical that must be leached away; or specific requirements of light or darkness. These seeds may seem like they require extraordinary efforts to get them to grow, but these protections are adaptations which ensure germination at an appropriate time in the wild. Once they are known, then they can be overcome.

Seeds that are a challenge to both home gardeners and professional growers will often have poor or maybe even no germination unless a strict regimen is followed. Such seeds need extra attention to germinating or growing temperatures, moisture and light levels. Otherwise they loose their viability very fast after harvesting. Begonia seed will be dust-like, if the seed is not coated or pelleted, and will be very hard to sow. It also needs extra light during the day from January through March to grow to a size where it can be planted in the garden in early June. The shade loving annual, Browallia needs to be started extra early because it grows very slowly. Dahlberg daisy has irregular germination. Eustoma hates cool temperatures and must be germinated at 77 degrees F. (25 degrees C.).  Start this plant early and sow it directly into deep pots to accommodate an extensive tap root. Madagascar Periwinkle must be keep warm and in darkness until germination is complete. Do not overwater it or subject it to cool temperatures or it will sulk. Osteospermum must be kept cool and dry. Verbena usually has poor germination rates that could be as low as 30%. Use fresh seed that has been chilled for 1 week. Water the seeding pots and soil the day before sowing but do not water them after sowing because the seed is susceptible to rot if moisture levels are high. Cover the seeding containers with black plastic and keep them at 25 degrees C. Chill snapdragon seed for several days before sowing. Soak morning glory seed overnight to soften their coats. Germinate melampodium & mimulus at a cool 65 deg. F. (18 degrees C.). African marigolds should be covered after germination with an opaque material from 5 pm until 8 am for the first 2 weeks to simulate short daylength and produce better flowering. Nasturtium do not need any more than a starter fertilizer after they have been transplanted or else lots of foliage will be produced at the expense of flowers.

Seeds that are very small, such as fibrous begonia, petunia, coleus, dianthus or snapdragons, are often available as pelleted seed. This process coats each seed to make them easier to handle, and germinate faster. The extra cost of these seeds is worth it. Do not cover these seeds when sowing. Simply press them gently into the soil. Small seeds that are not pelleted can be mixed with horticultural sand and sown straight from the seed packet. Tip the packet on its edge and gently tap it with a pencil. The seeds will march down the packet and can be sown evenly spaced in a neat line.

Seeds with a hard seed coat that will not absorb moisture must go through a process of scarification to achieve good germination rates. The trick is to gently abrade the seed coat without damaging the interior seed parts. Depending on the size of the seed and the thickness of the seed coat, a knife, file or sandpaper can be used to scarify. Small seed can be soaked for 24 hours before sowing. This will soften the seed coat and shorten the time for needed for germination. Plant these seeds immediately after soaking. Commercial seed suppliers will use a scarifying machine or apply an acid to wear down the seed coat. One advantage of seeds with a hard seed coat is that they have a long storage life.

Stratification is a process where seeds are subjected to moisture and cool or cold conditions in order to get them to germinate. This is necessary for seeds that are immature when they are harvested. Many perennials and woody plants fall into this group. To get them to germinate, seeds are mixed with moist sphagnum moss or a seeding media and placed in a sealed, clear plastic bag. This is placed into either the refrigerator or freezer as instructed. After the recommended time has elapsed, the seeds can be sown into a seeding container. An alternative is to sow the seeds directly into a seeding container, cover it with a clear plastic bag, label and seal it and then place the whole thing into the refrigerator or freezer.

One of the most problematic diseases that attacks seedlings is called “damping-off.” This is a fungus disease that could be lurking in the soil or on seedcoats. The disease can even move from one seed container to another by hitching a ride through the water. Damping-off strikes very fast and without much warning. One day your newly germinating seedlings are fine and the next day some of them have toppled as if they were severed by a miniature chain saw. There are several tips to keep this disease under control. Use sterilized soil with good drainage to start your seedlings. Sow your seeds so that there is some space between each seed – do not overcrowd them. Make sure that there is good air circulation. You may have to set up a small fan to gently circulate the air around. Avoid overwatering your seedlings. Sowing seeds into rows will help reduce the chances that all of your seedlings will succumb to this disease. If the disease appears, a row or part of a row can be removed to stop the disease from spreading. Commercial fungicides for damping-off can be used to control this disease.

Once seedlings have grown to a stage where they have their first or second set of true leaves then they can be transplanted into their own pot or cell pack. The true leaves will normally be the ones just after the first two large food storage cotyledon leaves. Transplanting seedlings will give them more room to develop and will help to ensure that they have a strong root development.

Soils used for transplanting can be of a different recipe than the seeding media. It is less critical that this soil be of a fine consistency, but it must still be sterilized. When selecting the new growing container, remember that the smaller the volume of soil that annuals have to grow roots, the faster they will develop.

Many plants are available as a collection of mixed colours. Some colours are not as strong as the others. When transplanting seedlings into their own container select a variety of sizes to ensure that all colours are represented. This advice is contrary to the natural tendency of selecting the biggest and strongest seedlings. If this is done, then there is sometimes a risk of increasing the percentages of certain colours.

Before transplanting, fill your new containers with soil and moisten it. Also moisten your seedlings. Next choose a thin narrow tool to help untangle seedling roots. A pencil, ice pick, thin bamboo stake, chop stick, commercially manufactured dibble, or similar tool will work. Label your new container with the plant name and date.

Images coutesy of Wikipedia.com and used under the creative commons license.

Spring seems to arrive a little sooner when gardeners start their own plants indoors. Starting plants from seed is a very rewarding activity and there are many locations throughout the house suitable for starting seeds. The two critical factors are the amount of light and the soil temperature. Generally, a consistent temperature near 75 degrees F. (21-24 degrees Celsius) is ideal. This can be achieved on top of the refrigerator or on a heating pad. For adequate light consider the area under cupboards with fluorescent lights, a window sill, or on the floor of a solarium.

The first leaves of seedlings emerging

When should annual flower seeds be sown? Sowing dates are a little flexible because many factors have an influence on a seedlings rate of growth. These include light levels, day and night temperatures, fertilizer application, soil type, timing of transplanting, moisture levels, and seed age. The best advice is to use the dates below only as a guideline and make a chart that is specific to your conditions. The following sowing dates are determined by counting backward from the average frost date – in this case I have picked the first week in June. If you feel that it will be safe to plant annuals outside during the last week of May, then subtract one week. One of the fastest growing annual vines are morning glories which, if sown on May 1st, will probably be ready for outdoor planting within 4 weeks. Cosmos should be sown on April 18th, 6 weeks before planting outside. There are several annuals, such as amaranthus, sunflower, sanvitalia, and zinnia, that should be sown on April 12th. Annuals that require 8 weeks of indoor growing time should be started on April 5. These include melampodium, mimulus, nicotiana, marigold, and nasturtium. Brachycome, gomphrena, portulaca, and thunbergia are annuals that should be sown near the end of March. Annuals that require 10 weeks to reach a size where they can be planted safely outside are ageratum, celosia, cleome, annual phlox, and salvia. Sow annual dianthus, coleus, impatiens, and nierembergia indoors on March 15. Gazania, lobelia, petunia, and dusty miller require 12 weeks before they can be moved outdoors and should be sown in early March. Snapdragons, ivy geraniums, seed geraniums, and pansies are some of the slowest growing annuals and require 14 or more weeks before they can be planted outdoors. Start them around the middle of February. The slowest growing group of annuals includes begonia, browallia, and eustoma. These plants need to be sown in early February so that they can have 16 or more weeks to grow before being planted outside.

Starting seeds is addictive and can quickly fill up your light garden or windowsill. Finding space and containers is sometimes a challenge. The most important requirement of a seeding container is to hold soil. Commercial seeding trays can be purchased as a complete kit (full-sized or window sill version) which contains a water-holding tray, cell pack inserts, and a clear plastic lid. Gardeners don’t necessarily have to purchase new equipment for this project if they have some shallow plastic or clay pots handy. These can be used with a plastic bag to simulate a miniature greenhouse. Some gardeners who find they have more seeds or seedlings than pots or flats become very resourceful. They use margarine or yogurt containers, egg shells halved or styrofoam cups. All of these can make great seeding containers as long as they have drainage holes.

Tomato seedling

Soil is critical to the success of starting seeds. It must be sterilized, light-weight, and have a fine texture. It also must have a small nutrient supply, hold moisture, but also provide good drainage. The simplest way to meet these requirements is to purchase soil that is manufactured specifically for starting seeds.

Should seeds be covered? Most seeds will germinate well if they are covered with a thin layer of soil. This soil provides moisture and darkness which is required for good seed germination. Seeds that need absolute darkness should also be covered with a dark garbage bag to block all light. Upon germination, all seedlings will stretch looking for light. Check your pots daily for emerging green stems or roots. This is the beginning stages of germination. Change the dark cover to a clear plastic one if more than 40% of the seeds have germinated.

A small group of plant seeds must remain uncovered in order to germinate well. They require light to trigger germination. Some of the annuals that are in this group are: ageratum, begonia, brachycome, browallia, coleus, sweet alyssum, mimulus, nicotiana, petunia, portulaca, salvia, dusty miller, and torenia. When sowing these seeds, scatter them on the soil surface. Gently press them down into the soil so that they have good contact but are still exposed to the light. A clear plastic cover will keep the humidity high near the seeds and increase germination time.

A few annuals need to be lightly covered with soil to have the best germination results. They have to be as close to the surface as possible for exposure to light and they have to have a thin covering of soil to maintain humidity and moisture. Keep the soil surface moist. Some of the plants that should be lightly covered are: amaranthus, Madagascar periwinkle, cleome, dianthus, heliotrope, impatiens, melampodium, nierembergia, marigolds, verbena, and pansy.

For other annuals not listed above, check their seed packet or a reference book for instructions. Most likely they will be in the group that needs to be lightly covered.

Germination and growing temperature requirements are often different from one annual to another. In a lot of cases the minimum night temperatures are the critical ones. Refer to seed packets, seed catalogues or a reference book for information on what temperatures are ideal for optimum plant growth.

Some annuals don’t like to be disturbed – they resent being transplanted and will sulk. These plants should be sown into a bigger pot to reduce the amount of shock during transplanting. Some seeds can be sown into fiber pots to avoid disturbing them later since they can be planted outside while still in the pot. Eschscholzia, morning glory, nasturtiums, phlox, sunflowers, sweet peas, thunbergia, and zinnia should be sown directly into their final indoor growing container. Place 2-3 seeds in each cell or container and later thin the seedlings to a single strong plant.

A few other annuals produce plants that are too small to handle, such as portulaca and sweet alyssum. Several seeds of these can be sown into each final growing container. No thinning is needed in this case.

Proper misting and watering are important for good germination and plant health. Check the soil moisture level at least once a day. If a seed is allowed to dry out after it starts to soak up moisture, it will die. Use tepid (room temperature) water that has been allowed to sit for 12 hours. For delicate seedlings, a mister will gently apply water to the soil without causing injury from wash-outs or fallen plants. If pots or trays of seeds are very dry they can be placed into a laundry sink with a shallow amount of water. The pots will gradually soak up water from the bottom and the seeds or seedlings will not be disturbed. Once the top of the soil is barely moist, remove the pots from the sink and drain them.

Novice gardeners and children can have great success with starting seeds indoors by selecting plants that are easy to grow. Marigolds, geraniums (takes a long time), nasturtiums, sunflowers, morning glory (soak the seeds overnight), and sweet peas (rub the seed with sandpaper then soak the seeds overnight before sowing) are excellent suggestions.

Sow more seeds than you need for the garden. The average germination rate is between 60 and 70 percent, so plan to sow 50% more seed than you require as plants. If you end up with more plants than you can use, donate them to a local horticulture or gardening society or give them to your neighbours.

Extra seeds can be stored for next year in a sealed glass jar in the refrigerator. This helps keep the moisture levels high in the seeds. Remember seeds are living things. Viability will decrease at different speeds for each seed type. Some seeds can be stored for up to 5 years while others should be purchased fresh every year. Begonia, impatiens, onion, peppers, and viola have shorter storage viability than tomato, sweet pea and zinnia.

The transplanting process is very simple with two main rules. Never hold your seedlings by the stem. Use your fingers to grasp only the leaves in order to avoid causing serious damage to the fragile stem. Use your transplanting tool or your finger to create a hole in the centre of new container to the depth of your seedlings roots. Carefully separate one seedling from the rest and plant it into the hole. Plant it at the same depth as it was growing. Gently firm the soil around the roots to remove any air pockets. Once again, be careful of the fragile stem. The second rule is to water the seedling after transplanting. Then place it under a light garden or cover it for a few days if it is on a sunny windowsill.

First two images copyright TheLaptopGardener.com, last two images courtesy of Wikipedia.com and used under the creative commons license.

Winter Garden Concerns

Early winter ice storms won't harm this pansy flower but other plants may be damaged

Unseasonably low temperatures within the next couple of weeks will damage plants that are not fully “hardened-off” or those that are marginally hardy. This is particularly true in our area of unreliable snow cover. Gardeners cannot be guaranteed the insulating protection of snow.

Other situations that might cause havoc on plant health this winter are a quick thaw in January or February resulting in flooded areas over the frozen soil. A quest to keep roads and paths clear of snow and ice means that mountains of salt and sand are spread each winter. Heavy snow is another concern. Evergreen trees laden with snow may look picturesque but early season, waterlogged snow could bend the branches leaving them permanently misshapen. Wind scorch is an unappealing sign of the harshness of winter, but it is one of the less damaging factors. A more serious concern is the damage caused by mice gnawing on tender plant stems. This is usually not noticed until plants are struggling to grow the following season.

Early winter snows can damage plants that aren't ready for the sudden chill

Preventing damage due to low temperatures is often beyond the control of gardeners. Fluctuations below the annual average low temperature are to be expected during most winters. Gardeners can only hope that their plants have hardened off or are protected in a microclimate and will be able to withstand an early cold spell. Plants are better able to survive if there has been a gradual decrease in temperature instead of a sudden sharp drop. To have reliably hardy plants that are not damaged by low temperatures, select plants that can grow in temperatures that are 2 hardiness zones colder than your garden’s zone. This is wise advice, but it is hard to follow. There are so many exciting marginally hardy plants that make tempting the fates of nature hard to resist. Identify microclimates in your garden where these tender plants can have a bit of protection from the winter weather. A building or evergreen hedge can create such a microclimate.

The January thaws have a positive psychological effect on humans, but are deadly for some plants. The freezing and thawing cycle caused by daytime temperatures above 0 degrees C. and freezing nighttime temperatures is hard on many perennials and some thin-bark trees. Plant tissues expand during the day and contract during the night. For thin-bark trees like the London plane tree, this causes a split in the bark on the southwest side. Often this repeated freezing and thawing prevents the split from healing until spring arrives. For perennials that grow from a crown or are newly planted, the freezing and thawing action might heave them out of the ground. This will leave them exposed to the drying effects of the sun and wind. Inspect your garden during the January thaws and gently press plants back into the soil.

A less frequent injury caused by the winter weather is flooding damage. This is often a short-term problem in late winter when the ground is still frozen and the first heavy rains arrive. Many low-lying areas can be filled with standing water for days. Healthy plants are able to withstand a limited amount of flooding. During late winter, trees are still dormant and little oxygen is exchanging through the roots. A short duration of flooding should not harm them. Willows, bald cypress and alders are more resistant to flooding damage.

Heavy layers of ice can damage just as much as wet, dense snow.

Wet, heavy snow is a potential problem at the beginning and end of the winter. This type of snow can cause damage to evergreens or hedges. These plants that do not have strong stems to withstand the weight of snow or because of their shapes, do not shed the snow as it piles up. Boxwood that has not been trimmed is especially prone to snow-load damage. Heavy snow or ice will force the branches downward and leave gaping holes in the shrub that might be permanent. Some cedars (Thuja) and pencil point type junipers might also be damaged. Snow loads could also damage hedges that have been trimmed with a flat top. Minimize the amount of horizontal surfaces that are present on weak-stemmed hedges. Creating a slight angle on the sides is an excellent solution to this problem. To prevent snow-load damage on upright plants, support the branches with fine netting or tie up the plant like a Christmas package with garden twine. In many cases, a broom will work to remove the snow before it becomes heavy enough to weigh down the branches.

The cold, drying winter winds can damage some broad-leaf evergreens, especially Mahonia (Oregon grape). Winter weather causes browning of the outer edge on exposed leaves. In the spring the plant will send out new growth to cover this browning, but it looks bad for a time. Other conifers such as those with golden-coloured foliage and dwarf Alberta spruce might also suffer browning from drying winds and sun during the winter. Plant these in a location where they receive protection from the south and west, use an anti-desiccant spray, wrap them with burlap, or live with the temporary discolouration.

So what can be done to battle the latest weather anomaly? Pretend that the garden has been transported to England or change the calendar to April? The best action is to prepare plants wherever possible for the winter. Hill roses, mulch perennials, and line with burlap where it has been done in previous years. A little effort to give some protection will be well worth it.

Perennials in the Garden for Fall and Winter Interest

Looking for ideas on how to design an attractive garden for the overlooked winter season usually means wading through lists of trees and shrubs for the most attractive fall foliage colour and winter form.  With a little luck, there might even be a few days of colourful berries to peak interest before birds or cold temperatures change the view.  After a few minutes the  lists become quite monotonous with two key plants; winterberry holly and red twig dogwood.  When many gardeners are faced with staring out the window for what could be months at the frozen landscape, it is important to broaden our list of winter interest landscape plants.

Snowy winter scene in upstate New York

There are many more plants that can add interest to the picture than Ilex and Cornus.  Very little attention is paid to the plants at our feet. This group of overlooked plants are the perennials. Perennials can offer very interesting effects during the fall and winter as a result of their attractive seedheads. Some perennials have strong semi-woody stems that will stay upright through the entire winter, while others will give a good display through the fall and early winter before rain, wind and snow cause them to lean with casual artistry.

The showiest feature perennials offer through the snowy winter months is attractive seedheads. Wind blowing the tall stems of Eupatorium maculatum (Joe-Pye Weed) will make them sway like a living curtain. Another reason for leaving perennials standing in the fall is to see the contrast between the dark colours of many plant stems and the light colours of falling leaves and snow. The dark, woody seedpods of Iris sibirica (Siberian Iris) are very interesting when the three sectional capsule is surrounded by yellow birch leaves that have fallen around the clump. Leaving perennial seedheads intact after their flowers have finished blooming also is a benefit to wildlife. Echinacea purpurea (Purple Coneflower) is excellent for attracting finches and sparrows to the garden that are looking for food. An additional ornamental benefit to leaving perennials unpruned once they have finished blooming is that many have attractive seedheads that can be dried for fall or winter bouquets.

The following perennials are recommended because they have attractive properties in the fall and winter.

Acanthus spinosus (Spiny Bear’s Breeches) remains attractive long after the mauve-white flowers have fallen. The seedheads have the same nodding shape of the flowers. They are held high above the foliage and remain quite attractive into the fall. The spiny foliage may even remain semi-evergreen through the winter if they are in a mild enough location (with snow cover).

Many of the Achillea (Yarrow) have attractive upright, sturdy seedheads that look effective during the beginning of the winter. Since the fall is a time that Achillea often reblooms, many flowers are smaller and stems are not as sturdy as earlier in the season. Still some cultivars are excellent for fall and winter interest. Liatris spicata (Spike Gayfeather) also has attractive seedheads. Liatris has a fluffy, brown upright spiky structure that has good holding power into the winter.

Yaupon holly after a February ice storm

The best time for Alchemilla mollis (Lady’s Mantle) seed displays is just after blooming early in the summer. Heavy rains during the late summer and fall will often cause the weak seedheads to lie horizontally. This in itself can be attractive in the winter as the tan star-shaped seeds are held above the leaves. One of the potential disadvantages of leaving the seedheads on these plants is that Lady’s Mantle will self-seed extensively the following year. Coreopsis verticillata (Threadleaf Coreopsis) also has attractive seeds and will also self-seed if they are left on the plant over winter. This is a small price to pay for an attractive winter display.

The pink blooms of Anemone hybrida (Japanese Anemone) seem to be everywhere lately. So many new and improved cultivars are finding their way to the garden centres that they are finding their way to many gardens. Japanese anemones are excellent for late season blooms (almost until the frost!). Some of the early blooms may even progress into seed heads that open to reveal attractive white cottony seeds.

Angelica is an interesting plant. The most commonly grown ornamental species is Angelica gigas. If this plant is allowed to flower and set seeds it will die and act like a biennial. If the plant is allowed to flower and the seeds removed before they mature, the plant acts like a short-lived perennial. If the plant is grown as a biennial, some of the seeds may germinate and start to grow the following year. If it is left to set seed, the resulting form is a very dramatic. It resembles a tall umbrella-like structure that could reach 2 metres in height.

Some perennials will actually live through the winter better if they are not pruned in the fall. Artemisia (Silver Sage) and Filipendula (Queen of the Prairie, Meadowsweet)
are two of these plants. Do not prune these plants in the fall. Leave them through the winter and clean them up in the spring. Some of the taller blooming cultivars may “recline” during the winter but this is a small price to pay for increasing plant survivability.

 Asclepias tuberosa (Butterfly Weed) has orange blooms that progress to small milkweed-shaped seedpods late in the summer and fall. These split open in the fall to release silky topped seeds. If seed-collecting admirers can be encouraged to leave the pods, these plants are quite attractive. This might be a lost cause since so many want this plant for their garden.

Salvia left unpruned in the fall has a better chance of survival through the winter and the seedheads add winter interest.

Fall and asters go together like tulips and spring. One plant that is an exceptional introduction is Aster frikartii ‘Monch’ (Monch’s Frikart Aster). This is a shorter, earlier aster that has very little trouble with pests and diseases. Leaving the seedheads standing makes sense for several reasons. Chief among these reasons are for winter architectural effect, for feeding the birds and to increase its winter survivability. A white flowering aster-like plant called Boltonia asteroides ‘Snowbank’ (Bolton’s Aster) and the tall, yellow blooms of Patrinia scabiosifolia can also be treated this way.

Many astilbe including Astilbe arendsii have attractive plume-like seed structures that create an excellent vertical accent effect through the winter. These plants also fare better if the foliage and seedhead is not pruned in the fall. Chelone lyonii (Turtlehead) is also a plant that should not be pruned in the fall. Do the clean up for both of these in the spring.

The foliage and flower stems of Ceratostigma plumbaginoides (Leadwort) will provide an attractive display through the fall and winter. The main reason for leaving this plant standing is to mark its location the next spring. Ceratostigma is unusually late to emerge and often waits until it is time to plant annuals before it peeks from the soil. Having some remnants of the plant still present means that that it will not be disturbed while it is dormant.

The tall seedheads of Cimicifuga racemosa (Bugbane), star-shaped seeds of Dictamnus albus (Gasplant) and the horizontal structures of Crocosmia (Montbretia) provide attractive interest if they are left standing during the winter.

Getting Dendranthema (Chrysanthemum) and Lobelia cardinalis (Cardinal Flower) to overwinter is often a tough task under the best of conditions. Leaving the entire plant standing in the fall will help with winter survivability. Even though the plants often have a sprawling way of growing, this does add interest when the snow flies. Letting cardinal flower self-seed increases the chance that some plants may overwinter (even if it is as seed).

Two architectural plants that add dramatic interest during the summer, fall and winter are Echinops ritro (Globe Thistle) and Eryngium planum (Flat Sea Holly). Both of these plants are known to self-seed if the seedheads are left on the plant. If self-seeding is not a problem in the garden leave these plants alone until the spring so that the round and spiny structures can be fully appreciated.

One of the unsung treasures of the perennial border are the Gaura lindheimeri cultivars (Butterfly Gaura). These plants have months of light airy dancing blooms and once the frost comes; they have attractive red tints on the flower stems in the late fall. These turn brown during the winter.

Getting Papaver orientale (Oriental Poppy) to have seed pods for winter interest is a battle. Most often the seed pods are harvested in the summer and fall for floral arrangements instead of leaving them on the plant. With such an attractive seed pod who can blame the early harvesters?

January view at the Ladybird Johnson Wildflower Center, Austin, TX

Silvery stems and seedheads are the reward during the winter for leaving Perovskia atriplicifolia (Russian Sage) standing until the spring. Since this plant likes to grow with a mass of divergent stems, the effect is quite interesting. Prune Russian sage to 15 cm (or lower) in the spring if killed to the ground by cold weather.

Both the excessively tall Rudbeckia nitida ‘Herbstsonne’ (Black-eyed Susan) and the shorter coneflower perennial staple called Rudbeckia fulgida ‘Goldsturm’ might fall over during the worst winter weather. Nonetheless the “coneflowers” are excellent winter interest plants because of their seed structures and the birds love to feast on the seeds.

One of the best winter interest perennials are the Hylotelephium ‘Herbstfreude’ AKA Sedum ‘Autumn Joy’. The brown spent flowers hold up very well to rain, snow and ice (and look great during all of these conditions). Often the seedheads look so good that they are used in early spring flower arrangements. Don’t touch them at all in the fall.

Several other perennials are attractive during the winter because of their evergreen foliage. These are Ajuga reptans cv. (Carpet bugleweed), Helleborus orientalis (Lenten Rose), Heuchera sanguinea (Coralbells), Lavandula angustifolia (English Lavender), Teucrium chamaedrys (Germander), and Thymus serpyllum (Mother-of-Thyme).

Fun with Useless Garden Trivia Stuff?!??

Do you know the difference between Corylus and Corylopsis? Well you don’t have to know the answer for this fun gardening trivia quiz. Gardeners or garden lovers eager for some fun investigation and a chance to test their knowledge of vegetables, perennials, trees, annuals, pests, weeds and indoor plants are invited to tackle the following quiz. (The answers are in the next post.)

Vegetables
1. That warm feeling from hot peppers is measured in units that honour the man who discovered the complicated way to measure the heat of peppers. What are the units that measure pepper heat?

2. Zucchetta Rampicante is an heirloom vegetable vine from Italy. What type of vegetable is it?

3. Some tomatoes are true vines that don’t stop growing until the frost. Are they determinate or indeterminate plants?

4. This vegetable has many personalities. When it is growing in the herb garden it is often called Chinese parsley. When the seeds are gathered for mildly spicy casseroles and baked goods it is called coriander. Used fresh or dried in India it is called dhania. What is it called when the leaves are harvested for salsas and salads?

Perennials
5. The flowers, stems, leaves and seeds of foxgloves are very attractive but deadly. What makes this popular perennial so harmful?

6. Whirling butterflies is the cultivar name of a perennial with dancing blooms on long wiry stems. The flowers open whitish pink and turn rosy pink as they age. What is the plant?

7. Some perennials have a colour identity problem. Purple coneflower is not really purple it is pink. ‘Husker Red’ is a foxglove penstemon that in real life has maroon tipped leaves and soft lavender flowers with white throats. What is the flower colour of a vigorous groundcover called Lamium ‘Beacon Silver’?

8. Why is Physostegia called the obedient plant when it spreads so disobediently?

9. Ligularias have big, bold leaves that often look like wilted lettuce in the garden. Where would this plant be happier?

Trees
10. Black walnut trees exude a toxic material from their roots to exclude other broad-leaved plants (including their own seedlings) from growing nearby and providing competition. What is the toxic substance?

11. The oil from the roots of a tree native to most of the eastern part of the United States and Southern Ontario was originally used to flavour root beer. What is this tree with mitten shaped leaves?

12. This massive native tree has a botanical name that is derived from the Greek word “leirion” meaning lily and dendron meaning “tree”. Native peoples used the tall straight trunks of this tree for large canoes carrying 20 people or more. The attractive yellow and orange flowers bloom in late May and early June. What is this tree?

13. What tree is the official tree of Maine and Ontario, Canada?

14. Aucuparia is part of a botanical name for a small tree or tall shrub meaning “I catch birds”. What is this plant?

Annuals
15. This ornamental plant in the annual garden still produces a few tubers like its close relatives found in the grocery story vegetable section. What is it?

16. Deadheading is a term for a frequent practice done by anyone growing marigolds, geraniums and zinnias. What is happening to these plants?

17. One of the most popular cannas for dramatic effect has bronzy purple and yellow striped leaves and orange blooms. What is the name of this canna?

18. This annual is called false Queen Anne’s Lace or Bishop flower for its cluster of lacy white blooms. How tall does it grow?

19. Zinnia flowers come in a rainbow of colours. What unusual colour is the one called ‘Envy’?

20. Where in the world is annual lobelia (Lobelia erinus) native?

Garden Challenges
21. Which voracious green caterpillar can reach 4 inches (10 cm) in length while devouring the vegetable garden?

22. These dime size black spots form on the upper surface of maple leaves during the second half of the summer. What is this called?

23. Which four houseplant and tropical-attacking insects excrete a substance called honeydew?

24. Cutting both ends out of a metal soup can and pushing it 2 inches (5 cm) into the lawn is a good way to tell if an underground insect is present. Which serious lawn pest potentially floats to the top a few minutes after water is added to the can?

25. A white dusty coating on a lilac leaf is a fungus disease. What is it?

Weeds
26. This vine, shrub or groundcover plant has three leaflets, white berries and small greenish-white blooms. Most people regret coming into contact with the plant’s sap. What is the plant?

27. The stems on this weed are triangular. It loves to grow in moist, sandy fields or gardens throughout most of the warm and temperate zones of the world. What is it?

28. This weed looks like a scouring brush because it has no leaves, flowers or seeds. It reproduces by spores and spreads by underground stems. The stems can easily be pulled apart at the nodes and put back together like interconnecting pipe. What is the name of this plant?

29. Ragweed has inconspicuous male flowers that produce huge quantities of light pollen that can fly in the wind for more than 125 miles (200 km). This plant is the most important cause of hay fever allergy suffering during which two months?

30. Poison hemlock, goutweed, Queen Anne’s lace, and water parsnip all belong to the same family of plants. What is this family called?

Indoor and Tender Plants
31. What is the botanical name for weeping fig?

32. Frangipani is a large tropical plant known for its colourful blooms and outstanding _________.

33. Bromeliads belong to the same family as this popular tropical fruit. What is the famous bromeliad family member?

34. The looking glass tree is named for its silvery mirror-like foliage that reflects the sun. What is this tropical tree?

35. Kiss-me-quick or yesterday-today-and-tomorrow is the name of a tropical shrub that has flowers that are pale violet when they first open. After a day the fragrant flowers change colour to white. Which plant is this?

Garden Trivia Answers are Revealed

The suspense is over for all fun-loving gardening trivia buffs. Here are the answers to the trivia quiz and in some cases an explanation.

Peppers

Vegetables
1. That warm feeling from hot peppers is measured in units that honour the man who discovered the complicated way to measure the heat of peppers. Pepper heat is measured in Scoville Units in honour of Wilbur Scoville who invented the scale in 1912.

2. Zucchetta Rampicante is an heirloom vegetable vine from Italy. It is a summer squash or zucchini.

3. Some tomatoes are true vines that don’t stop growing until the frost. These are indeterminate because they don’t stop growing once they start flowering.

4. This vegetable has many personalities. When it is growing in the herb garden it is often called Chinese parsley. When the seeds are gathered for mildly spicy casseroles and baked goods it is called coriander. Used fresh or dried in India it is called dhania. It is called cilantro when the leaves are harvested for salsas and salads.

Perennials
5. The flowers, stems, leaves and seeds of foxgloves are very attractive but deadly. The chemicals deslanoside, digitoxin, digoxin, and digitalis glycosides make this popular perennial so harmful.

6. Whirling butterflies is the cultivar name of a perennial with dancing blooms on long wiry stems. The flowers open whitish pink and turn rosy pink as they age. The plant is called Gaura lindheimeri.

7. Some perennials have a colour identity problem. Purple coneflower is not really purple it is pink. ‘Husker Red’ is a foxglove penstemon that in real life has maroon tipped leaves and soft lavender flowers with white throats. A vigorous groundcover called Lamium ‘Beacon Silver’ has pink blooms and silver foliage edged in green.

8. Physostegia is called the obedient plant, not because it stays contained but because the flowers move on a hinge and stay in place.

9. Ligularias have big, bold leaves that often look like wilted lettuce in the garden. The plant would be happiest in a cool and moist location.

Trees
10. Black walnut trees exude a toxic material from their roots to exclude other broad-leaved plants (including their own seedlings) from growing nearby and providing competition. They exude a toxic substance called Juglone.

11. The oil from the roots of a tree native from Maine to New York and Michigan and south to East Texas and central Florida was originally used to flavour root beer. This tree with mitten shaped leaves is called Sassafras.

12. This massive native tree has a botanical name that is derived from the Greek word “leirion” meaning lily and dendron meaning “tree”. Native peoples used the tall straight trunks of this tree for large canoes carrying 20 people or more. The attractive yellow and orange flowers are blooming now. The tree is Liriodendron or tulip tree (yellow poplar or tulip poplar).

13. Maine and Ontario’s official tree is the Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobes).

14. Aucuparia is part of a botanical name for a small tree or tall shrub meaning “I catch birds”. The plant is a mountain ash that has fruit that are used to catch birds in Europe.

Annuals
15. This ornamental plant in the annual garden still produces a few tubers like its close relatives found in the grocery story vegetable section. The ornamental vegetable is sweet potato vine (Ipomaea batatus).

16. Deadheading is a term for a frequent practice done by anyone growing marigolds, geraniums and zinnias. The term refers to the act of removing the spent flowers.

17. One of the most popular cannas for dramatic effect has burgundy purple leaves with red and yellow striped leaves and orange blooms. This canna is called  Tropicanna, ‘Orange Durban’ or ‘Phaison’.

18. This annual is called false Queen Anne’s Lace or Bishop flower for its cluster of lacy white blooms. It is Ammi majus and it will grow to 75 cm (30 inches).

19. Zinnia flowers come in a rainbow of colours. What unusual colour is the one called ‘Envy’? ‘Envy’ is a delicate shade of green.

20. The annual lobelia (Lobelia erinus) is native to South Africa (Cape of Good Hope area).

Garden Challenges
21. A voracious green caterpillar can reach 4 inches (10 cm) in length while devouring many items in the vegetable garden. This is the tomato hornworm, which is a sight to see and hear chewing.

22. These dime size black spots form on the upper surface of maple leaves during the second half of the summer. This unattractive yet relatively harmless disease is called tar spot.

23. There are four houseplant-attaching insects that excrete a substance called honeydew. These are aphids, scale, mealybug and whitefly.

24. Cutting both ends out of a metal soup can and pushing it 2 inches (5 cm) into the lawn is a good way to tell if an underground insect is present. Chinch bug is the serious lawn pest potentially floats to the top a few minutes after water is added to the can.

25. A white dusty coating on a lilac leaf is a fungus disease called powdery mildew.

Weeds
26. This vine, shrub or groundcover plant has three leaflets, white berries and small greenish-white blooms. Most people regret coming into contact with the plant’s sap because it causes itchy blisters. It is called poison ivy.

27. The stems on this weed are triangular. It loves to grow in moist, sandy fields or gardens. It is the troublesome weed called yellow nutsedge.

28. This weed looks like a scouring brush because it has no leaves, flowers or seeds. It reproduces by spores and spreads by underground stems. The stems can easily be pulled apart at the nodes and put back together like interconnecting pipe. It is called horsetail and is quite persistent.

29. Ragweed has inconspicuous male flowers that produce huge quantities of light pollen that can fly in the wind for more than 125 miles (200 km). This plant is the most important cause of hay fever allergy suffering during August and September for many people.

30. Poison hemlock, goutweed, Queen Anne’s lace, and water parsnip all belong to the same family of plants. These plants are in the carrot or parsley family (Apiaceae or Umbelliferae)

Frangipani

Indoor and Tender Plants
31. What is the botanical name for weeping fig? Ficus benjamina.

32. Frangipani is a large tropical plant known for its colourful blooms and outstanding fragrance.

33. Bromeliads belong to the same family as this popular tropical fruit. The most famous member of this family is the pineapple.

34. The looking glass tree is named for its silvery mirror-like foliage that reflects the sun. The tree is called Heritiera.

35. Kiss-me-quick or yesterday-today-and-tomorrow is the name of a tropical shrub that has flowers that are pale violet when they first open. After a day the fragrant flowers change colour to white. The shrub is called Brunfelsia.

Fruitful Fruits of the Fall

The end of the growing season is the time to enjoy the fruits of the garden. Unveiled by the falling curtains of leaves are many shrubs and trees that brighten the landscape with vivid fruit. Some of the fruit stays for a lengthy time (like sumach) but many others attract feathered admirers and could vanish in an instant once they are discovered. This is the best time to appreciate the showy features of some overlooked (and underused) plants in our landscape. This summer has been quite good for the production of fruit on many plants.

One shrub to admire is the Firethorn (Pyracantha coccinea). Firethorn produces heavy clusters of orange-red fruit that have the brilliance of fire. The fruit, which has beacon-like properties, can be seen for a great distance because of the contrasting dark green foliage. This shrub is sometimes trained as an espalier form against a wall or fence.

Porcelain berry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata) is a surprise attraction in the fall garden. This relative of the grape vine does not justify its existence all summer. It has a lacklustre leaf and borders on being too rampant. Finally after a lot of patience from the gardener, it starts to redeem itself in October. The small, green pea-shaped fruit starts to ripen and turn a light blue colour. It then turns darker blue and finally it changes to a purple colour. This transition happens at differing speeds so that all colours are present on the vine at once. The beauty of this vine is this remarkable array of colours. Unfortunately, the foliage (until it falls) hides some of the fruit. The first week of November is usually the best time to see the display of lilac to amethyst-blue coloured fruit when it is most showy just after the foliage has fallen.

Virginia creeper is a durable, reliable vine that is often dismissed as a garden plant because it is viewed as being old-fashioned. The vine botanically is called Parthenocissus quinquefolia and has dark blue berries that hang down in miniature grape-like clusters. This fruit is also most effective after the leaves have fallen. The fruit stays on the vine through the winter and appeals to many birds as a secondary source of food.

Euonymus are not one of the shrubs that would normally be considered for a list of fruiting plants. Some cultivars of Euonymus fortunei have an adult form that matures to produce flowers and fruit. The fruit is a creamy-white capsule that opens to reveal several round seeds that have an attractive orange-red coating. The fruit is a late winter meal for birds. The cultivar ‘Vegetus’ has large, green, rounded leaves and is quite reliable about producing bright orange seeded fruits.

The rich, red seedheads of the Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) bring back memories to many people of fall hikes through local parks. The fall glory of this large native shrub is from the berries that also delight some 93 species of birds. The colourful fruit can be seen (if the birds don’t eat it) from October until the new flowers appear in May.

Cotoneasters are a valuable groundcover shrub that have become slightly overused in larger landscaping sites. Some of the smaller types are ideal for home gardens and have attractive fruit during the fall and early winter months. One of the best (and most popular) is the rockspray cotoneaster (Cotoneaster dammeri ‘Coral Beauty’). This variety will reliably produce a heavy crop of fruit. The leaves are a glossy, dark green colour which is a nice complement to the fruit. Another valuable groundcover plant is Cotoneaster horizontalis. It has low, horizontal branches that are great for growing over a wall or down a slope. In the fall it is decorated with small, round, scarlet fruit.

The shrub called winterberry (Ilex verticillata) is a true holly that has deciduous leaves. The yellow-bronze foliage falls in early November revealing small red fruit clustered along the stems. The showy fruit gleam like red Christmas lights. This interesting plant is native to an area from Nova Scotia to western Ontario and is hardy from zones 4-9. Each plant is either male or female and both must be nearby to produce fruit. The best growth occurs in a location that has moist, acidic soils although it is growing well in alkaline soils at the Niagara Parks Botanical Gardens. This shrub is valuable in the landscape because it is somewhat shade tolerant. More than twenty-two types of birds will feed on the fruit and eventually strip it clean in early winter.

One shrub that has fruit that the birds do not touch is the European Cranberrybush (Viburnum opulus). The vivid, red, berries are bitter and distasteful to birds and humans. The fruit persist into the winter and eventually look like dried, shrivelled, red raisins.

As an alternative, the native shrub called High bush cranberry or American Cranberrybush (Viburnum trilobum) has similar clusters of bright red fruit that is prized by thirty four species of birds. This tall shrub is hardy to zone 2 and has fruit that can be harvested for making preserves or jellies.

Crabapples are a natural to include on a list of plants with notable fruit. Of all the numerous cultivars of crabapples, Malus ‘Red Jade’ is one of the best small trees for showy flowers and attractive fruits. It has small, bright, cherry-red fruits that last well into winter. They resemble a crop of maraschino cherries hanging on the tree branches. The weight of the fruit makes the naturally pendulous branches weep even further. It is a beautiful sight.

The white fruits of snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus) hang on the barren stems in early winter. The small shrub is most effective when it is planted against a backdrop setting of evergreens. Once again, the fruit show best in early winter just after the leaves have fallen.

The mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) has brilliantly coloured fruit in the fall but rarely has it into the winter. Invariably, word spreads that the fruit is present and a flock of cedar waxwings will strip every fruit from the tree in an instant. There are new cultivars appearing in the nursery that have white, yellow, orange, or coral coloured fruits.

Beautyberry, as the name suggests, is a plant with outstanding fruit. Botanically it is Callicarpa bodinieri var. giraldii. This shrub is originally from China and came into cultivation in western gardens at the turn of the century. The fruit on this shrub are a rich lilac-purple colour. The fruit are produced in small, delicate clusters close to the stems. The best time to appreciate the beauty of the fruit is just after the foliage has fallen in early November.

Whatever the fruiting plant, design your garden so that the fruit (and feasting birds) can be seen and appreciated from your house window. Many plants are particularly attractive if they have a dark green backdrop of evergreens to accentuate their brilliant display of fruit.

Plan First to Efficiently Maintain Perennials

The following are a few tips on developing a strategy plan to maintain your perennial plants more efficiently.

Graceful drifts of perennials greet visitors at the entrance garden to the Niagara Parks Botanical Garden and School of Horticulture in Niagara Falls, Ontario Canada.

• Draw a sketch or plan of each perennial bed or border. Indicate each plant on a scaled drawing. The time that it takes to create this valuable plan will be well spent when garden revisions are being done. Use this plan to record your ideas while they are still fresh.
• Take pictures of the garden during each season. Although this is often the lowest priority item on your “to do” list, pictures are essential to help recreate the ideas noted on your plan. This is particularly helpful if you are redesigning your perennial garden in the winter.
• Keep records of each plant’s characteristics. Draft a chart of their height, width, flower colour, blooming time, and blooming duration. Include a final column on the chart where notes can be added about other attributes.
• Before a maintenance plan can be created for the garden, some research is necessary. Add several maintenance categories to your plant charts. Include propagation records (division, layering, cuttings, seeded), staking, deadheading, pest and disease problems.
• Be observant in the garden. Take note of any plants that are showing signs of unhealthy growth and try to find out why.
• If you wish to lower the amount of maintenance required for your perennials, try using perennial groundcovers such as Ajuga, Alchemilla, Aubrieta, and Geraniums. These cover an area with their thick leaves and keep out weeds. Also to lower maintenance -don’t fuss with your plants. If a clump of candytuft needs deadheading- use hedge shears to get the job done faster.
• Plant in groups or masses of odd numbers. Groups of plants will be better suited to keep out the weeds and will be faster to maintain. Many smaller groups of diverse plants will require more time to maintain.
• Consider the timing of your activities. By deadheading (removing the finished flowers) candytuft before the seeds are dispersed, the plant does not selfseeding. A weeding job has just been eliminated.
• Accomplish as many tasks as your time and the plants will allow. Think of what will need to be done to maintain your perennials before your can return to the garden and do it now. Think about anticipating “must do” tasks that are on the horizon. Staking a plant before it needs staking is much easier than doing it after it has blown over.
• No time to spend time? Don’t use plants that need lots of TLC in your garden. These are the finicky plants that have to have special soil, precision watering, constant grooming and copious pest control to look good. If you are short on time to maintain perennials do not use these plants.

Here’s a list of tough, durable, easy care perennials for a sunny location:
• Achillea millefolium (Yarrow), zone 4-8
• Campanula carpatica (Carpathian Bellflower), zone 3-8
• Cerastium tomentosum (Snow in Summer), zone 3-8
• Coreopsis grandiflora (Tickseed), zone zone 3-10
• Echinops ritro (Globe Thistle), zone 3-8
• Echinacea purpurea (Purple Coneflower), zone 3-10
• Gaillardia grandiflora (Blanketflower), zone 3-10
• Phlox subulata (Creeping Phlox), zone 3-9
• Rudbeckia fulgida (Showy Coneflower), zone 3-9
• Sedum and Sempervivum species (Stonecrop and Hens & Chickens), zone 3-10

Schedule your perennial maintenance activities and prioritize your work. Group your perennial garden activities into three categories.
1) Things that must be done in the perennial garden so that plant will survive. These include watering, weeding, and pest control.
2) Things that should be done in the perennial garden but are not absolutely critical to the plants health. These are fertilizing, mulching, and fall clean up.
3) Things that might be done in the perennial garden but are definitely not critical to the plants health. These include deadheading, shearing, pinching, cutting back, staking, thinning, dividing, moving, and winter protection.

How much time do you want to spend on each of these categories? Will this change with the time of year? Throughout the season keep track of the activities that fit into each category. Evaluate these categories at the end of one season. Do you need to change your priorities?

Garden Myths Not Worth Repeating

Myths, old wives tales, and folklores abound even in the world of gardening. Gardening lore often gets passed from neighbour to neighbour as homegrown tips based on little or no scientific research. The myths start out as common sense conclusions and keep getting perpetuated time after time. Pretty soon they are part of the global gardening consciousness and they are believed to be true. Once this happens it is almost impossible to undo the belief. The poinsettia poison myth is still being trounced after eighty years. Well, here’s my attempt to dispel some popular garden myths.

Myth: Botanical “natural” pesticides are toxic to pests and harmless to other living things (including gardeners). Not true, in fact some botanical pesticides that are derived from poisonous plants are even more toxic than commercially prepared ones. Both pyrethrum (made from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) and rotenone (made from two tropical legume family plants, the South American Lacepod or Lonchocarpus and the Asia’s jewel vine or flame tree which is known botanically as Derris) are popular botanical pesticides. Pyrethrum and rotenone are moderately toxic to humans (particularly children) when inhaled or ingested. Interestingly both are extremely toxic to aquatic life, and are used as fish poisons.

The flowers of the chrysanthemum used to make pyrethrum are harvested shortly after they open and are either dried and pulverized or the oils from the flower are extracted using solvents. The active ingredient works on the nervous system to cause paralysis and death (if in sufficient quantities). Cats are particularly susceptible to poisoning from pyrethrums.

Rotenone is a contact and stomach poison that is made by grinding up roots and varies in its human toxicity from very high to low depending on how much of the pure derris root is used in the pesticide. Treat natural pesticides with the same caution that synthetic ones deserve (or give them even more). One of the most toxic pesticides is nicotine, which is derived from the tobacco plant.

Myth: The soil under oaks, cedars and pines is acidic. The top inch or so might be acidic, but if the bedrock underneath is limestone then the soil above that rock will be on the alkaline side. Oak leaves, cedar leaflets and pine needles have to build up for centuries to make a significant amount that will have any impact on alkaline soil.

Myth: Moss grows in lawns that need lime. Lots of conditions favour the growth of moss in lawns. Having an acid soil is not the most significant one of them. The most important reason that moss is found in the lawn is that conditions are not favourable for a lush, healthy lawn. Moss is an opportunity seeking plant and will settle almost anyplace that there’s an open spot. Too much shade, poor drainage (moist conditions), poor fertility or compacted soils are all conditions where lawns do not grow well. When this happens moss is almost certain to arrive. Don’t add lime to correct a moss problem unless a soil analysis indicates an excessively acidic result.

Myth: Mushrooms and toadstools sprouting in the lawn mean that the soil is deficient. On the contrary, fungi such as mushrooms and toadstools are living off nourishing decaying material. A rotting tree root or other decaying organic matter is likely the cause of the fungi. This is a good sign that there’s nourishment being added to the soil. The visible structures are the flowering and fruiting portion of an extensive underground plant.

Myth: Ants are needed to make peony flowers open. Many people believe that ants are actually eating the waxy coating from the peony so that the flower can open. Others believe that the peony is secreting a sugary substance that attracts ants to feed. In any case, the ant is enjoying a symbiotic relationship with the peony and is not doing any harm by being on the flower bud. Once the bloom starts to open the ants vanish. Peony flowers can open just fine without any ants – just ask a florist.

Myth: Poinsettias are poisonous. This hugely popular garden myth is not true. There have been no cases of plant poisoning from poinsettias. This poison myth started in 1919 when a two-year-old child of an army officer stationed in Hawaii died of poisoning. The cause was incorrectly attributed to a poinsettia leaf. To persuade the public of this myth, members of the Society of American Florists frequently eat poinsettias for the press in December. The leaves taste like a bitter radicchio and won’t kill you, just make you sick. The plant though should not be eaten and is hazardous because of the milky sap. The sap can cause an allergic reaction for some people.

Myth: Some plants can repel mosquitoes. Amazing but not true, there are no plants that repel mosquitoes. If you rub the leaves of certain plants onto your skin, the oils and aromas can help discourage mosquitoes from biting. It is asking a lot of a plant to release essential oils into the air in quantities that can keep mosquitoes away for distances like 6 feet though.

Myth: Clay pots are better for houseplants than plastic pots. Clay pots cause the moisture in the soil to evaporate faster than plastic pots. This can be helpful for houseplants if the waterer is heavy handed – then clay is better. If houseplants are watered only when they need water instead of on a regular schedule then plastic pots should be adequate.

Myth: It doesn’t pay to use leftover seeds from flowers and vegetables. Most open packets of seed start to loose their viability as soon as they are exposed to heat and extreme humidity levels. If seeds are stored under ideal conditions in a tightly sealed jar in a dark, cool, dry location then they should store well for several years. The length of time varies according to the seed. To extend the viability even further, place some powdered milk in the bottom of the glass jar to soak up humidity.

Myth: Hostas are shade plants and don’t tolerate the sun. There are many hostas that perform very well in the sun if they are given adequate moisture. In fact, the native habitat for many hostas is in a sunny location at the edge of the woods. Some hostas that tolerate more sun are: Francee, Patriot, Sum and Substance, Gold Standard and Royal Standard.

Taking a moment to look at these myths with a bit of scepticism will hopefully lead gardeners, after some critical thinking, to come to the conclusion that not all gardening lore is valid.

Some Plants Just Face Big, Big Challenges When Looking for Romance!

The plant world has some amazing ways to make sure that progeny are successfully reproduced. One of the most interesting ways of overcoming the challenge of not having the right mate nearby is solved when some plants change their sexual orientation as the need arises. This small group of plants have a very liberating ”keep all options open” way of propagating themselves. Still others overcome the big challenges of finding a suitable plant mate by excreting toxic substances to keep their unwanted suitors away. Finding the right mate can be downright challenging for some among the plant kingdom.

The most novel solution to the elusive mate syndrome has been solved by plants like the saltbush.  If the opposite sex is not nearby, they just simply change sexes and continue with their propagation process. The sexually labile, Four-Wing Saltbush (Atriplex canescens) is a perennial that can amazingly change from one sex to the other at will. This plant, native to western Texas, stands a little over three feet (one metre) tall and has attractive winged fruits. Historically, the seeds were ground and used by Native Americans as baking powder when making bread.

Hollies like this Yaupon need both a male and female plant in close proximity to produce fruit.

When cold temperatures or drought make it tough for the saltbush to find the right mate – they use their ability to change sexes. Usually this change is from female to the male sexual orientation. This unusual “switcheroo” greatly increases the odds of reproducing the species by putting more male pollen into the air. The more pollen that is spread to the wind, the better the chances of producing seed. Spreading copious amounts of pollen in the wind may be romantic for plants, but it is often very unromantic for humans. An outdoor stroll for an allergy-prone person while sneezing and peering through watery eyes is not the scene that romance novels portray. When too much wind-borne pollen is in the air blame the over-exuberant male plants.

Another group of plants have to deal with the challenges of being designated male or female in a world that makes it far easier to reproduce by having both sexes in each flower. These unusual “one sex” plants are faced with the same “finding the right partner” challenges inherent in the human world. Called dioecious plants, they must have a member of the opposite sex nearby to produce viable fruit. Imagine being a dioecious plant and not being about to move in order to look for a partner of the opposite sex.

Literally the Greek word “dioecious” means “two in separate houses.”  Dioecious hollies (Ilex) are grown for their attractive fruit and should be planted in proportions of more females to males for the best show. If space is an issue in the garden, fewer males than females are needed to provide good pollination. The ratio is usually about one male for every eight female holly shrubs planted nearby. Nursery growers have made the task of determining sexes of hollies easier by giving some of their cultivars male and female gender based names – such as China Girl (I. ‘Mesog’) and China Boy (I. ‘Mesdob’) or Blue Prince (I. x meserveae cv.) and Blue Princess (I. x meserveae ‘Conapri’).

Success! Osage Orange Fruit

Osage orange is another plant that is dioecious and has male and female flowers on separate trees. The female trees have small green flowers that open in June, just after the leaves unfold. The male flowers are on terminal leaf spurs of the previous season’s growth and are 1 inch (2.5 centimetres) long in a raceme shape. Their pollen is light and travels with the wind. If a female tree is not within pollen range, they will not produce viable fruit. Female trees may look like they are producing their cannonball-like fruit well, but there may not be many viable seeds inside.

Other plants that have separate male and female plants are the tree of heaven, sago palm, persimmon, and many poplars. Even some herbaceous plants have this unusual arrangement. Spinach and asparagus have male and female flowers on separate plants, but they are both equally edible. For this reason they are grown from seed and no attention is made to their gender unless gardeners want to do some propagation at home and save their own non-hybrid seed.

Dioecious plants have even played a part in ancient Arabic wars. The date palm, a valuable agricultural crop in Arab countries has both male and female plants. Long ago fighting tribes would sneak into an enemy’s grove and destroy all the male trees. Without male pollen for fertilization no crop would be produced. This method of destruction, removing the less numerous male trees, was far less work than damaging the numerous female date palm trees.

Ginkgo Leaves

The separation of plant sexes does have some advantages for gardeners, though. One of the slower plants to reach maturity, the ginkgo or maidenhair tree takes more than twenty years before it flowers. Since this tree is believed to be from the dinosaur era which dates back 270 million years, waiting for it to bloom so the sex can be determined is not that long in planet Earth time, but very long in a gardener’s time (about 20 years). The sex of a ginkgo tree is important to know because female trees have plum-like fruit that turn yellow when they are ripe. It’s the ripe flesh on the outside of the seed that is undesirable to many people because it contains butanoic acid and smells like vomit or rancid butter. There’s nothing romantic about a ripe ginkgo fruit smell. For plants that have objectionable smelling fruit like the ginkgo, growing only males means that human olfactory senses are not under assault when the female produces fruit. The one big disadvantage for the ginkgo is that it is almost impossible to tell the difference between male and female plants until they bloom – and then only under a microscope. Therefore gardeners must trust nursery labels, purchase a male clone variety or plant several of each sex in order to ensure that they have good odds that one of each is present.

The love for a ginkgo tree comes from its other features. Running a finger over the ridges of the fan-shaped leaf, looking at the divergent branching outline against sky, putting a leaf in a book to press (or finding one in an old book), or walking through the brilliant yellow fallen leaves can all conjure up sentimental feelings for this ancient tree. Who needs red roses and chocolates to feel romance and love? All it takes is a ginkgo tree (and a ginkgo may sometimes last a lot longer too).

Camouflaged and deadly offensive ginkgo fruit among the recently fallen ginkgo leaves.

Another obstacle to plant propagation occurs in the fruit tree world. Often more than one variety of a fruit tree is needed to really produce good fruit. This happens not because they are dioecious but because they are self-unfruitful. Many apples, pears and plums require pollen from another variety to have adequate pollination and good fruiting. Since these fruit trees produce pollen that is transported by winged insects other problems also come into play. The weather must be nice enough for bees to forage and the corresponding pollinating varieties must also be in bloom at the same time. To help overcome these problems, some nurseries are producing dwarf apple trees that have several varieties grafted on one plant. Now bees need only travel a few feet to perform their cross-pollination. This also solves the need to buy multiple plants if garden space is limited.

Some plants solve their reproduction challenges by chasing other plants away. Label this group of plants “anti-social” and think of them as being destined to have a solitary life without the company of others. Most of these plants are in the walnut family. This group poisons the soil around themselves so other plants stay away. Walnuts secrete a substance called juglone from their roots, decomposing leaves, and from the husks that surround their fruit. The secretion is toxic to the majority of the temperate plant world. When mature, their far-reaching roots create a neighbor-free zone that could double or triple the canopy area of the walnut. This is not a tree that is friendly to others. Luckily the fruit that it produces is highly prized by small, mobile animals that will transport it to remote locations and new communities.

Ginkgo images originally published by Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba and used under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike license.
Osage Orange image originally published by Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclura_pomifera and used under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike license.