Everything You Didn’t Want to Know About Squash – and now find Fascinating!
Introduction
Squash, the native North American vegetable, was cultivated by the Cochise peoples in New Mexico where unearthed remains dated back to 4000 B.C. Squash and corn are two of the oldest sources of food grown in North America.
Today, squash is easy to grow from seed and can be successfully grown by beginning gardeners. It is one of the most diverse vegetable classes with more than twenty squash sizes or shapes, ranging in color from blue gray, orange and pink to golden yellow, pastel green, cream and forest green. Squash is receiving acclaim for its nutritional value, containing both vitamins and essential minerals.
‘Papaya Pear’ Squash
History
Squash was one of the first crops grown in the prehistory of the New World. Our earliest physical evidence comes from the Ocampo caves in Tamaulipas, Mexico, where several species of squash have been found along with the remains of gourds, jack beans, and other crops. These remains date to about 7000-5000 B.C.
The National Garden Bureau found the earliest use of squash was by the Cochise Indians in what is now the southwestern United States. Remains of domesticated squash dating to about 4000 B.C. were found at Bat Cave, New Mexico, along with the remains of pod corn, a primitive ancestor of what we know today as corn. This is strong evidence that squash predates corn as a domesticated crop.
For centuries after the introduction of agriculture into North America, farming was practiced primarily by Indian tribes of the Southwest, and the base of their agriculture was corn and squash. About 300-500 A.D. beans were introduced into the technology, and the farming of corn, bean and squash, by a tribe called the Anasazi, marked the beginning of a new era of prosperity. Squash is not only one of the oldest of the New World crops, it became almost universally grown.
In 1276 a major drought began in the Southwest that would last until 1299. The drought caused a migration of the southwestern tribes to the south and southeast. With the migration went the knowledge of their farming technology. By the time the Europeans arrived in 1492, variations of the corn/bean/squash technology were seen wherever corn was grown. The early settlers survived because they gained this knowledge from the Indians.
Research conducted by the National Garden Bureau found the reason why these three crops were so often grown in one plot. As the corn, bean and squash technology evolved among the Indians, they came to practice a very effective polycultural technique. The corn stalk provided a pole for the beans, and the squash was grown as a ground cover. The squash provided food, but also helped control weeds, provided kindling for cooking, and produced a good organic mulch.
The knowledge of squash seems to have entered the written records of Europe late in the 16th century. We can surmise that many settlers recorded their knowledge of this and other New World plants in their private diaries and letters home. But for the formal introduction of the plants we can look to one Thomas Hariot, a mathematician, who accompanied an expedition financed by Sir Walter Raleigh. Mr. Hariot returned to England with samples of squash and knowledge of its use learned from the Indians. In 1588, Hariot published a report that was described as the first book in English devoted to the flora and fauna of what is now the United States. Cucurbita pepo was included in the 1633 edition of Gerard’s Herbal.
The 21st century home gardener would easily recognize today’s squash from this vivid Elizabethan description. “The great long Pompion which bringeth forth thicke and rough prickly stalkes, which with their clasping tendrils take hold upon such things as are neere unto them…the floures be very great like unto a bell cup, of a yellow colour like gold, having five corners standing out like teeth…the fruite is great, thick, round, set with tick ribbes, like edges sticking forth.”
Nomenclature
Squash is a member of the family Cucurbitacea, which includes some 90 genera and 700 species of plants. They are described as tendril climbing herbs from the tropic and temperate zones, grown for the edible fruits and for ornament. In addition to squash and pumpkins, the cucurbit family includes such familiar plants as cucumbers, melons and gourds, as well as hundreds of lesser-known herbs. Three species, C.maxima, C.moschata, and C.pepo, all contain varieties listed as squash. Squashes are commonly designated as “summer” or “winter” while most of the summer squash are from C.pepo, the winter squash occur in all three species.
Classification
Summer squash is grown and harvested during the summer. The squash grows on plants that are fairly narrow at base, widening to about 3-5½ feet across at the top. Their leaves are generally long, lobed, serrated at the edges, and dark green or green mottled with silver. Summer squash is sown and harvested when soil and air temperatures are warm. Its flavor is best when picked and eaten at its immature stage; that is, before the seeds are fully developed and while the outer skin is still soft and tender.
Winter squash grows most often on big, vigorous vines or on a semi-bush. Leaves of the winter squash often exceed 15 inches or more in length and width, are generally round and may be matte or glossy-surfaced. Winter squash has an assortment of fruit size and shapes. They may be spherical, oval, or acorn shaped. The skin can be smooth, warty, or grooved and the color varies from white, yellow or orange to green, blue or black. Winter squash needs warm weather for germination and fruit set, but requires cool nights as it reaches maturity. This is necessary for sugar to accumulate and produce the sweet flavor winter squash is known for. These varieties require a longer growing season and are harvested when fruits are mature with fully developed seeds and a hard rind.
Summer Squashes:
Crookneck/Straightneck, Scallop/Patty pan, Zucchini (above), Vegetable marrow
Winter Squashes:
Acorn (above), Banana, Buttercup, Butternut, Delicata, Delicious, Hubbard (below)
Miscellaneous Squashes:
Edible Gourds, Turban, Vegetable Spaghetti
Planning Your Garden
The first step in planning is to choose a sunny location, as squash needs full sun all day to mature and set fruit. Squash requires more space than many other garden vegetables, so advance planning is worthwhile.
Summer and winter squash have different space needs and will be discussed separately.
Most summer squash varieties have a bush habit and many of the newer hybrids have been bred for compact plant size. Plan on four square feet for each plant. This is a relatively early crop, producing fruit in about two months. Summer squash has many culinary uses from salads to stir-fry. However, they do not store well and are best used within several days of harvesting.
Most winter squash have a vining or semi-bush habit, although some newer varieties are bush. Vining types need a larger area than do the bush varieties. Plan on 12 square feet for each vining plant. Small-fruited winter squash can be trained on a 4-foot high trellis. The trellis should be placed toward the rear of the garden so that the vines do not shade other vegetables. Since it takes eighty to one hundred thirty days to produce mature winter squash, these varieties are best suited to areas of North America with a long growing season.
The phrase “growing season” simply means the number of frost free days in an area. The county extension agent can tell you the average dates of the last frost in spring and the first frost in fall. The difference between the two is the length of the growing season. Most seeds must be sown after the last frost in spring and the fruit harvested before the first frost in autumn. Seed catalogs and seed packets print a “days to maturity” designation for each plant variety. The designation includes the number of days from sowing to harvest. For example, if a particular variety takes seventy days to mature and your growing season is greater than seventy days, that variety is suitable for your location.
Because squash has such a long productive season, it is a heavy feeder. To fortify the soil, spade in organic materials such as well-rotted manure or compost before seeding. Later in the growing season, an application of a balanced fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, will replace the necessary nutrients.
Far North Gardens
Although direct sowing is the simplest and most effective way to plant squash, gardeners in the northern zones may wish to start seed indoors. Begin about three weeks prior to the last frost date. As squash has fairly large seeds, sow one seed in each pot. If peat pots are used, they can be planted directly into the garden, thus lessening transplant shock. While indoors, site the pots in full sun or under fluorescent lights; harden off outdoors, then transplant.
Sowing Seeds
There are two main ways to sow seeds in the garden; which the gardener chooses depends on space limitations and personal preference. The first method is planting in a series of hills, leaving 4 feet between hills. To create a hill, mound the earth in a cone shape about 5 inches high. Make a saucer like depression in the top of the mound and plant a half dozen seeds in a circle. Cover the seeds with 1 inch of fine soil or vermiculite. Once seeds have sprouted and grown a full set of true leaves, thin to three plants per hill. If more than one row of hills is desired, space rows 5 feet apart. The use of hills makes it easier for the gardener to walk all around the plants to water, weed and cultivate. In addition, a raised planting area warms the soil and improves drainage.
The second method is row planting. Plan to space the rows 6 feet apart to allow for plant growth, to promote good air circulation and to give the gardener easy access to the plants. Begin by sowing two to three seeds per foot, but thin to one squash about every 2 feet once true leaves emerge. Gardeners who live in areas with at least one hundred fifty frost-free days might consider a second planting of summer squash. Remove the first planting of squash after harvest. Seeding again between July 1 and August 15 will lengthen harvest times and avoid the “Zucchini Bumper Crop Blues” that can afflict many of us in late summer.
Plan to grow squash varieties suited to your climate and growing season as well as to your family’s taste.
Soil Preparation
Squash does best on a well-drained and aerated soil. If your garden site has heavy clay soil, till to improve drainage. Squash prefers soil that is neither too acid nor too alkaline; pH levels of 5.5 to 6.8 are acceptable. To learn the pH level of your garden, contact your county cooperative agency for information on soil testing.
Germination time can be hastened somewhat by presoaking seeds to soften their hard coat. Soak in tepid water for no longer than twenty-four hours; if seeds are allowed to remain wet, they are more susceptible to decay causing organisms. Dry the seed carefully before planting. Delay sowing seed until after danger of frost is past and soil temperature has warmed up to a minimum of 70ºF. At a soil temperature of 80ºF, seeds should sprout in three to five days.
Cultivation
Cultivation of squash is not difficult, provided the gardener remembers a few basic requirements. Winter squash is fairly drought resistant once the plants are established, but summer squash needs a regular water supply during its blossom and fruit development. Both types should receive enough water weekly, either through rain or irrigation, to wet the soil to a depth of 10 to 20 inches. Drip or ground irrigation is preferable to overhead watering because wet leaves may encourage the formation of foliar diseases such as mildew.
The use of black plastic mulch, especially for bush varieties, can cut down the need for frequent weeding. It may be difficult to put plastic mulch down in areas where running vine types are grown. Organic materials, such as grass clippings or straw, can be used and have the advantage of improving the soil when spaded into the garden at the end of the growing season. Keeping the garden area weed free will ensure that tender seedlings do not have competition for water and nutrients. Squash leaves grow rapidly and will shade out many weeds by mid-season. Spaces between rows can be hoed, but because leaf stalks are brittle and tender, it is advisable to hand weed close to the plants.
Pollination
Gardeners sometimes wonder why many squash flowers do not set fruit. Separate male and female flowers are produced on the same plant or vine, but only the female flowers bear fruit. Female flowers grow on short stalks and have a bulge, the miniature squash, below the petals. Bees serve as the primary means of pollinating the female flowers.
Zucchini Summer Squash ‘Portofino’
Harvest
Summer squash is harvested at an immature stage when the seeds are small and the skin is tender. One test of tenderness is to pierce the skin of the vegetable with your thumbnail. If the skin breaks easily, the fruit is still tender. Squash can be picked any time. Many gardeners prefer the baby or miniature size squash, which is harvested with the blossoms still on the fruit. If the fruit is picked frequently the plant will be encouraged to continue production. It’s easy to miss young fruit hidden by the large leaves. Walk through your patch every few days and lift leaves to see what has been hidden. Some gardeners prefer yellow or white squash since they are easier to spot amid the green foliage. Should summer squash become large however, all is not lost. If the squash is cut in half lengthwise, and the seeds removed, the fruit can be baked. Summer squash can be kept in the refrigerator for five days, if put in a moisture proof container or plastic wrap.
Winter squash is ready for harvesting when the skin is hard and resists thumbnail pressure. Cut stems 1 or 2 inches from the end of the fruit. Twisting or pulling squash from the vine may break open the fruit and make it easier to decay. Usually squash should be picked prior to the first frost. Squash can also be harvested after the first light frost has killed the foliage; squash can even recover quite well from light frost damage to the fruit, which cause small water soaked spots to appear. If the squash has been subjected to temperatures below 50ºF for two weeks, the squash may break down and rot in a few weeks.
Does winter squash need to be cured before storage?
Some sources say winter squashes can be cured to dry and harden their shells completely before they are stored. Also, curing speeds the conversion of starches to sugars, improving the eating quality. Winter squashes that can be cured are butternut, delicious, and hubbard. Acorn types are not recommended for curing. To cure, put squash in a warm, (75-80ºF) well-ventilated place, such as near a furnace or wood stove, or on a sunny, enclosed porch for a week or two. One expert says the higher temperature curing process can be skipped if you can keep a long-term storage temperature of 50-55ºF. Curing also can reduce storage life. Another source recommends picking the squash only when the rinds are well hardened and storing it in a dry, moderately warm place, such as on shelves in a dry basement that has a furnace.
Storage Techniques
The National Garden Bureau recommends storing winter squash at 50-55ºF with humidity of 50 to 75 percent. The storage location should have good air circulation, a uniform temperature and humidity. Under good storage conditions, gardeners can expect acorn squash to store ten to fifteen weeks. Other winter squashes can last up to six months in storage.
Nutrition
Zucchini is lower in calories than many popular summer fruits and vegetables. Corn, tomatoes and watermelon each pack more calories than zucchini’s 22 calories per cup. As summer’s bounty wanes, turn to winter squash for an excellent source of Vitamin A and minerals. Cancer researchers now believe that proper diet may have a strong role in reducing the risk of certain cancers. Research has focused on foods containing Vitamin A and beta-carotene; a precursor of Vitamin A. Beta-carotene is found in yellow and orange vegetables, such as squash. Although about the same in caloric value as potatoes, winter squash contains more than twice the potassium as potatoes.
Pests
Clean, well-maintained gardens are less likely to be infested with pests or infected with diseases. At all times of the year, keep growing areas free of perennial weeds, garden residues and trash. If a plant is badly infected, remove it from the garden, but do not add to the compost pile. After harvest, destroy squash plants to prevent over wintering of pests or viruses.
The National Garden Bureau found three pests that might be a problem to gardeners. They are the striped cucumber beetle, the squash bug and the squash vine borer. Each pest will be discussed for identification and suggested control.
The striped cucumber beetle begins as a white, slender larva with brownish ends. It grows to be an adult about ¼ inch long, yellow to black, striped or spotted. The beetle causes damage in several ways. In the larval stage, it feeds on roots underground. In the adult stage, it feeds on stems, leaves, fruit, and on young plants, which can wilt and sometimes die. The adult beetle carries two diseases of squash, bacterial wilt and squash mosaic virus. Starting seeds or transplants under a cold frame, or covering young plants with netting will help to keep beetles off. Till the soil in the spring to expose any hibernating adults.
As a nymph, the squash bug varies from bright green with a red head and legs, to dark greenish-gray with a black head and legs, and is about 3/8 inch long. As an adult, it is a flat, brownish-gray bug, about 5/8 inch long. Squash bug clusters are shiny brick red and can be found on the undersides of leaves and on stems and unripe fruit. The squash bug does its damage by sucking the juice from leaves and stems, which will wilt and dry up. Young plants are especially vulnerable.
Control this pest by picking up any bugs or egg masses you see on leaves. Lay boards on the ground near plants, bugs will gather under the boards at night. In the morning, lift the boards and destroy any bugs you find.
The squash vine borer is a problem east of the Rockies. The larvae of this pest are up to an inch long, wrinkled, and white with a brown head. Larvae are hatched from eggs laid on stems near the base, in late spring or early summer, by a clear-winged moth. Hatched larvae eat holes in the stems, causing individual stems or the plant to wilt or die. Signs of vine borer infestation include a sudden wilting of the stem, small borer holes at the base of the stem, and green sawdust like material inside stems or in piles near the borer holes.
Watch for, scrape off, and destroy any egg clusters found on stems or undersides of leaves. Split the stem lengthwise and remove or kill the borer. Cover the split with a moist mound of dirt to prevent drying and to induce root growth beyond the point of injury, or wrap the split with gauze and water well. Cut off and destroy very badly damaged stems. Prevent moths from laying eggs by spreading shiny foil under plants in late spring and early summer. The sunlight will reflect to confuse the moths.
Diseases
Bacterial wilt causes a sudden wilting and drying up of squash vines and plants. The bacteria enter the plants and plug up the water vessels of the stems and leaves. Wilting will first be seen in the leaves of the plant. In the early stages of disease, the leaves may wilt in the daytime and then recover at night. Young plants will die rapidly, while older plants may at first be affected only in one stem. Wilt can also cause fruit to wither. The presence of bacterial wilt is indicated by a white, sticky, stringy substance seen when a stem is sliced and pulled apart.
Patty pan Summer Squash ‘Moonbeam’
Bacterial wilt is totally dependent on the cucumber beetle to transmit the bacterium that causes the disease. To control disease, therefore, it is necessary to control the cucumber beetle.
Viruses are indicated by yellowish-green, mottled leaves, stunted vines, and warty, deformed fruit. New leaves may die and plants may decline. Most virus or mosaic disease on squash is caused by cucumber, watermelon or zucchini yellow mosaic viruses. The virus survives in perennial weeds, in the soil, or in the seed of infected plants. Like bacterial wilt, it is spread by aphids or chewing insects such as cucumber beetles. It can also be spread by a gardener moving through or working in the garden under wet or moist conditions, such as after watering.
Powdery mildew is a fungus disease occurring all over the U.S. A powdery white growth appears on the upper surface of the leaves, which will turn yellow and die. The mildew competes with the plant for nutrients, reducing yield and perhaps even killing the plant. Older leaves are affected first. Powdery mildew spreads rapidly and is carried by the wind. It can occur under any weather conditions, but wet or dewy leaves encourage its development. Under warm temperatures it can become a serious problem. To control, strip off older leaves.
Future Breeding
The breeding objectives to be achieved are improved disease/virus tolerance, multiple disease resistance, and in the more distant future, insect and pest resistance. Breeders are increasing the color range of squash fruit, looking for unique or decorative colors. Also important, is to change the plant habit from a vining habit that extends 12 feet to a compact bush habit needing only 2 square feet of garden space. Earliness and yield are primary considerations for all experimental lines prior to an introduction of a new cultivar. Look for more squash cultivars that can be harvested early and used as summer squash, or if left on the plant, the squash forms a protective skin for storage like a winter squash.
This squash fact sheet is provided as a service from the National Garden Bureau.
The National Garden Bureau (NGB) has announced that 2010 is the year of the marigold. So let’s celebrate this great flower.
Marigolds, native to the New World and sacred flower of the Aztecs, journeyed across the Atlantic Ocean twice to travel 3,000 miles north of their center of origin. This lengthy serpentine journey is a testimony to the rugged durability of marigolds. The National Garden Bureau celebrates the marigold, one of the most popular annuals grown in North American gardens.
 Growing to 12" (30 cm) this African Marigold cultivar called 'Taishan Yellow' is a delight. Marigolds are native to the Americas from Argentina north to New Mexico and Arizona. The earliest use of marigolds was by the Aztec people who attributed magical, religious and medicinal properties to marigolds. The National Garden Bureau found the first recorded use of marigolds in the De La Crus-Badiano Aztec Herbal of 1552. The Herbal records the use of Tagetes lucida for treatment of hiccups, being struck by lightening, or “for one who wishes to cross a river or water safely.” The last use confirms the magical properties ascribed to Tagetes.
The Aztecs named their native flower, cempoalxochitl, and bred it for increasingly large blooms. It is suspected that in the 1500’s, native marigold seeds were taken from the Aztecs by early Spanish explorers to Spain. The marigolds were cultivated in Spain and grown in monastery gardens.
From Spain, marigold seeds were transported to France and northern Africa. The taller marigolds, now called African or American, became naturalized in North Africa.
During a 1535 expedition to Tunis, the tall naturalized marigolds were observed and mistaken for native wildflowers. Seed was collected and once again taken to Spain. The newly collected marigold was named Flos Africanus due to its mistaken origin. The tall marigolds were widely known by that name well into the 1700’s. This was a classic case of error in origin.
The name Tagetes has unusual origins as well, tracing back to the revered Italian god, Tages. A grandson of Jupiter, Tages came forth from a clod of earth as a wise and handsome boy. So the American native marigold is commonly called French or African but the genus name Tagetes refers to an Italian god.
Marigolds figure prominently in many religious ceremonies. In Mexico and Latin America, marigold flowers are used to decorate household altars to celebrate All Saints Day and All Souls Day. Flower heads are scattered on relatives’ graves, which can account for the profusion of marigolds in cemeteries.
Marigolds are also used in Hindu religious ceremonies. The National Garden Bureau’s research found the Indian “gendha” to be the T. erecta species. An account in 1963 describes the marigold being used as garlands to decorate village gods during the harvest festival. The traveler recalling the festival also noted the maize and peppers were exactly the same shade of orange-yellow as the marigold. It was as though the corn and peppers were selected or bred to match the marigold flower color. “Gendha” is also reported to be used as a yellow cloth dye in India and Pakistan.
Several hundred years after their initial journey from the Americas to Europe and Africa, marigolds were introduced to North American gardeners. This reunion of sorts did not happen until shortly after the Revolutionary War. Marigolds were just one of many plants shipped to the young country.
Around the turn of this century, sweet peas and asters were the most popular flowers in the United States. Yet both of them were becoming beleaguered by disease and declining overall performance. The time was right for a ‘new’ flower to make its debut. In 1915 David Burpee took over the seed company, which was founded by his father, Washington Atlee Burpee. Young David felt that marigolds held promise and decided to feature them in his catalog and fund research.
Since the 1920’s marigold breeding has developed hundreds of new varieties. The odorless marigolds, hybrids and triploids have all been advancements in breeding. In the last thirty years most of the research, new varieties, and seed production has been accomplished by American breeders and seed companies. Somehow it seems fitting that the marigold would find the breeding emphasis and popularity back in the Americas, its center of origin.
Nomenclature
The genus Tagetes contains 40 species. All are native to the New World with the greatest diversity being found in south central Mexico. Three species have been chosen for research and cultivation as ornamental plants. They are:
T. erecta – commonly called African or American.
T. patula – commonly called French marigolds in spite of American origin.
T. tenuifolia – Signet marigolds, unusual lacy leaves with small single flowers.
A fourth species, T. filifolia or Irish Lace, is not widely grown or known. It is planted for the foliage rather than flowers.
In the plant kingdom, other flowers have had the word marigold added to their common name. This adds to the confusion of the marigold species. Plants such as Caltha palustris, commonly called marsh marigold and Calendula officinalis. pot marigold or cape marigold are not within the Tagetes genus; the focus is placed on T. erecta and T. patula. These two species are the origins of most modern day garden marigolds.
Tagetes patula. the “French marigold”
This dwarf, compact plant species contains the widest color range of marigolds. The flowers can be pure or solid orange, yellow, gold or mahogany red. The color diversity expands with bicolors meaning two colors per flower. Bicolors such as orange and gold, mahogany red and yellow offer a spectrum of color combinations. Petals can be edged with a contrasting color or the color can be placed at the petal base. A clue to identification can be noted here. If you observe a mahogany red bloom, it is a French marigold. The mahogany red color is not available in the T. erecta, L. species.
The French marigold flower form has been divided into five distinct types. The single flower form is the easiest to identify. There are five or eight overlapping petals in a single layer. These are called ray petals. There is a small central disc or tuft of stamens and pistils, the reproductive plant parts.
The anemone flower form contains broad, flattened petals, again overlapping. There are more rows of petals surrounding the central disc and are described as semidouble. The anemone flower form has recently received attention from many breeding programs.
The carnation flower form or fully double has numerous rows of overlapping petals. There can be a small central disc. This was the most common French marigold flower form in the 60’s and 70’s.
The crested flower form is subdivided into double and single crested. The crest or central disc petals are the dominant feature in either flower form. The center contains numerous short petals tightly clustered. Surrounding this crest are the ray petals, broader and flatter. If there is only one row of ray petals surrounding the crest it is considered a single crested flower form. If there are three or four rows of ray petals, it is a double crested French marigold. There have been many recent introductions in the double crested form. At this time there are no hybrid French marigolds.
In the garden, the T. patula marigolds are considered dwarf French. They range in height from 6 to 14 inches when mature. A gardener can choose from 1 inch to 2-1/2 inches for flower size. This species is the most popular of all marigolds. Easy to grow under most weather and soil types, French marigolds are reliable annuals.
Tagetes erecta, African or American Marigolds
This species is characterized by larger leaf size and larger flowers than T. patula. The flower forms are either semidouble or fully double. The semidouble flowers have fewer rows of ray petals than fully double. The size of the flower is the dominant feature. A small flower is 3 inches across. The larger flowers are 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. The colors are solid, no bicolors occur in this species. The color range is from white and cream to primrose, yellow, gold and orange. There are many F1 hybrid T. erecta cultivars available to home gardeners. Since they are hybrids, they express hybrid vigor by producing numerous flowers on uniform plants with a long flowering season.
Due to the height, most gardeners place T. erecta in the back of a bed or massed in an individual planting area. The plant height at maturity can be 9 inches for a dwarfer variety. The height can be from 9 to 28 inches. The tallest varieties attain a height of 38 to 40 inches and also have longer flower stems suitable for cutting. The T. erecta marigolds are versatile. Fewer plants are required in a garden bed to create the desired result, lavish annual color. Space the plants further apart, 12 to 18 inches or more depending upon the mature height. The marigold plants will fill in the space between them.
T. erecta species are day length sensitive. Each cultivar varies in the response to day length. If a home gardener is growing T. erecta from seed sown after March 1 and wants earlier flowering plants, a short day treatment can be applied. Just cover small seedlings with a light proof cover at 4:00 p.m. and remove at 8:00 a.m. This treatment can be applied for two weeks.
Triploids or 3-N Hybrids
T. erecta x T. patula. This is a wide cross between the African (American) and French species. The cross between species results in a plant that is sterile, unable to reproduce. Since the triploid is not capable of setting seed, the plant produces more flowers. This characteristic is significant when compared to T. patula. Most T. patula plants will decrease flowering under hot summer temperatures. It is called heat stress and shy blooms are the result. The triploid marigolds are not subject to heat stress and continue blooming prolifically regardless of the heat. The triploid blooms are 2 to 2-1/2 inches. Mature garden height can be 10 to 16 inches. The flower form on triploids can be single, double or semidouble. The color range is similar to T. patula with solid colors and bicolor designs. The triploid seed germination is less than the T. patula germination. The first triploid marigold was introduced in 1939. There have been many triploids introduced, improvements in flower size and compact plant habits. Triploids are capable of literally covering the plant with blooms.
How to Grow Marigolds
Marigold seeds are large, easy to handle and germinate reliably in warm, moist soil. T. patula can be sown directly on garden soil after the soil has warmed to 70ºF. Soil should be tilled so that it drains and has a fine, loose texture. Dig a furrow about two inches deep with the corner of a garden hoe. Water the furrow slowly to soak the soil. Scatter seeds in the furrow about an inch apart. Cover lightly with dry soil, sand, or vermiculite. Water again with a fine mist. Continue watering daily with a fine spray for 10 to 14 days when seedlings should appear. As seedlings grow, water less frequently but apply more water to encourage deep root growth. The T. patula seedlings can be transplanted when small to other garden locations. If garden soil is fertile and rich in organic matter, supplemental feeding might not be necessary. Overfeeding or a rich organic soil can result in vegetative growth and a lack of flowering. T. patula will flower in 6 to 12 weeks from sowing, depending upon variety and weather conditions.
T. erecta marigolds are best started indoors and transplanted into the garden. Sow seeds eight weeks prior to planting outdoors in warm garden soil. Cover seeds lightly and maintain uniform moisture. Transplant into larger containers at the 3 to 4 true leaf stage. Provide as much direct sunlight as possible while indoors.
Disease
The National Garden Bureau found two diseases that might infect marigolds in gardens. These two are aster yellows and botrytis, the most common problems encountered by North American gardeners. Many gardeners will not encounter any problems or diseases with marigolds. The marigold aroma, produced by oil glands on the undersides of leaves, is thought to repel some harmful insects. Thusly, marigolds are one of the most reliable annuals any gardener can grow for summer color and durability.
Aster Yellows
As the name indicates, this disease affects asters and marigolds as well as many other garden flowers. The disease is spread by six-spotted leafhoppers, which become infected by feeding on infected weeds. The leafhoppers spread the disease as they feed. The higher the number of leafhoppers, the higher the chance of plant infection.
The symptoms include a yellowing of the foliage, pale greenish yellow abnormally shaped buds and blooms, and an overall stunting of the plant. A diseased plant stands out from among healthy ones by its lack of flowers and oddly shaped plant. By the time the buds and blooms become misshapen, there is no alternative but to remove the plant. The only control over this disease is to control the population of leafhoppers, an unlikely solution at best.
Botrytis
This fungus, Botrytis cinerea, thrives in cool, moist conditions attacking injured tissues, dying blooms or foliage. The fungus is a mold that produces masses of gray spores that are spread by wind or water. Botrytis usually affects double marigold blooms late in the growing season when heavy dew and cool temperatures create the perfect environment for this fungus growth. It appears as brown, dying tissue at the base of the flower petal. If allowed to grow, the fungus can spread rapidly to infect healthy plants. The best control is to remove spent flower heads from the plant. This is particularly important near the end of the growing season.
Marigolds and Nematodes
Nematodes are a diverse group of microscopic worms. Some nematodes are beneficial to the soil or plants, others invade or penetrate plant roots and feed on nutrients thereby robbing the plant of them. Some of the harmful nematodes can be reduced by marigolds growing in the soil. Recent scientific studies have shown that chemical compounds produced by most Tagetes are toxic or antagonistic to certain harmful nematodes. Evidence suggests that the chemical compounds are toxic to nematodes both upon entry into the root system or in the vicinity of the roots. The National Garden Bureau concludes that Tagetes contributes to the control of harmful nematode pollutions in garden soil.
Container Gardening
Marigolds adapt well to container gardening. Remember to match the mature plant size to the container size. The T. patula French marigolds can be grown in smaller containers due to their smaller plant size. One French marigold will fill a 6-inch pot. French marigolds can be planted with vegetables in the same container. Combining various cultivars requires more attention to the water and fertilizer needs of the plants. French marigolds will thrive in larger containers such as wine barrels, urns, or redwood planters. One consistent rule for all container gardens is to ensure that water drains from the soil. Use containers with holes on the bottom or sides.
Both T. tenuifolia, signet, and T. erecta, African or American marigolds can brighten any patio with bold color grown in containers. Signet marigolds require a 6 to 10 inch container while the African or American needs more space and soil. Use a 12 to 15 inch diameter container at least 18 inches deep for the mid height range T. erecta.
Future Breeding
America continues to lead in the breeding advancements of marigolds. The two Tagetes species receiving the most breeding and research effort continue to be the T. patula, French and T. erecta, African or American. Breeders are selecting marigolds for earlier flowering with specific improved characteristics such as increased flower size. The single marigold flower form has been given recent attention with several new varieties introduced. Crosses between species such as the T. patula x T. erecta or triploid marigolds will continue to be improved for germination and seed vigor. Someday, breeders will be able to introduce the T. patula mahogany red genes into the T. erecta species for huge 3-inch red blooms. Or the reverse, introduce the white T. erecta genes into a dwarf French marigold. The National Garden Bureau is confident the breeders will continue to select marigolds that will find a featured position in America’s gardens. Whether tall or short, single or double flowered, marigolds will flourish across North America.
Window Sill Gardening with African Violets and Gesneriads
African violets and members of the gesneriad family such as the gloxinias, Streptocarpus, and lipstick plants will thrive in conditions that are easy to achieve in most homes once some basic environmental conditions are addressed. Window sill gardening is not free of challenges, but these are not insurmountable and overcoming them makes the rewards that much nicer. One of these challenges is dealing with light levels that vary depending on the window orientation and time of year. Indoor gardeners may have to use a compromised window for plant growth that is not the ideal situation. Supplemental (artificial) light may be the answer to this problem. Another challenge is the temperature of the growing area. The best light might be up against the window which is also the coldest location. Gesneriads are sensitive to cold and hot temperatures that are beyond a comfortable range. Indoor environments during the winter also have the challenge of low humidity levels. This is one of the easier challenges to overcome by using a humidifier.
Normal home temperatures that are comfortable for people are well suited for gesneriads. During the daytime, temperatures should be between 20 and 25 degrees (67-75 F.) Celsius for most of these plants. A five degree drop in night time temperatures is ideal and may even encourage blooming. It is critical for gesneriads to avoid excessively hot or cold drafts from an open door, fireplace or furnace vent. Generally, a comfortable environment for humans will be suitable for these plants.
Most gesneriads are from tropical parts of the world, although there are some semi-hardy members such as Ramonda which is from the high altitude mountainous regions of Asia, Europe, and South America. The most common member of the gesneriad group is the African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha) which is from the Tanzania and Kenya region of east Africa. African violets in their native habitat grow on the banks of streams or as epiphytes on trees. About 2,000 cultivars in white, pink, red, blue, violet, cream and yellow colours have been developed as a popular indoor plant. Many advancements have been made to the original plant found in Tanzania which was a light to dark blue colour. Other gesneriad family members are the trailing lipstick plants (Aeschynanthus species) which are epiphytes from the sub-tropical forests of the Himalayas, south China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and New Guinea. From the tropical rain forest of the “New World” in Brazil come the goldfish plant (Nematanthus) and gloxinias (Sinningia species). Gloxinias are gesneriads that have a single fleshy tuber. When the dry or cold season arrives in their native environment, the foliage dies down but the tuber remains alive. When weather returns that is more suitable for growth, the plant starts to grow from the energy reserves in the tuber. An interesting plant that is a tuberous gesneriad is the cupid’s bower or hot water plant (Achimenes). This easy-to-grow plant is dormant during the winter and springs to life in the spring.
African violets, the most famous gesneriad family member, were discovered by Baron Walter Von Saint-Paul in 1892 in Tanzania. Upon its arrival to Europe it received the botanical name of Saintpaulia ionantha. The genus name obviously commemorating its discoverer, but the species name is from the Greek language meaning “having flowers like the violet’s”. This gave rise to the common name of African violet which give the impression that this plant is a true violet. African violets are not a violet; they just looked like one to people back in the early 1900’s. These plants soon became favoured because of its small size, free-flowering abilities, and ease of growth. This has continued for over a century as more and more people are attracted to the wide variety of cultivars now available. African violets have now become the most popular flowering indoor plant. They now come in white, blue, purple, red, and yellow colours with bicolor, ruffled, or double petals. The foliage might be green, reddish or variegated and leaf margins are sometimes finely serrated, ruffled, or lobed. To add another dimension, there are now very popular African violets that are miniature and even trailing types.
One of the keys to getting African violets to bloom is to have adequate light levels. Many gesneriads will not produce flower buds if the light intensity is not high enough. The amount of light that is present on a cloudy winter day is the minimum amount needed to produce blooms. To ensure that plants receive as much of this natural light as possible, set them in a south or southwest facing window during the winter months. They must be moved to an east or north window during the summer months because the stronger rays may cause damage to the leaves. In the summer, an alternative to a south window is to set the plants back away from the window or behind sheer drapes. Another note is that the sun’s rays striking African violets from one side will cause the plant to grow lop-sided. Turn your plants one quarter of a revolution each week to preserve their symmetry. An easier solution might be to grow African violets (and other gesneriads) under fluorescent lights. This is the only solution for gardeners who do not have south facing windows during the winter. Fluorescent lights will provide an even distribution of light and can be used with a timer to ensure that African violets get more than 12 hours of light so that they will continuously bloom.
African violets are native to an environment that is warm and humid with temperatures that do not drop below 18 degrees Celsius (65 F.). Keeping temperatures around 25 (77 F.) during the day and five degrees lower at night will be sufficient for good growth and flowering. Dropping the temperature five degrees at night will produce larger flowers with more petals and brighter colours. The ideal humidity, between 40 and 60 percent, is often a challenge to achieve during the winter. Low humidity levels will cause leaves to curl and become crisp at the edges. Bloom quality may decline too. To help solve this problem, place a shallow tray of water near the plants so that it will evaporate and humidify the air, group plants together, or use a humidifier nearby.
Watering African violets the right way is a technique that will pay off with big flower rewards. Use room temperature water that has sat for several hours to let the gaseous water treatment chemicals leave. Water early in the day so that the plant is not excessively wet during the night. Water as soon as the soil surface feels dry to the touch. Add enough water to the top of the pot so that it runs out the bottom and into the saucer below. Let this sit for about one hour and then drain the water from the saucer. African violet roots are susceptible to damage from overwatering, drought, and cold water. Some gardeners insist that watering from the bottom is the correct way to water gesneriads. This can be done if careful attention is paid to the amount of time plants sit in the water. Root damage can happen fast. Watering from the top also flushes out fertilizer salts so that they do not build up in the soil.
Fertilizers for flowering indoor houseplants should have a higher phosphorous number. This is the middle number of the ratio. Fertilizing with a weak solution every time the plant is watered will provide a more constant feeding for the plant. Use one-quarter strength (or less) depending on the frequency of watering. A dormant plant that is not blooming or coming into bloom should not have any fertilizer.
African violets (and most gesneriads) should be grown in a sterilized, light soil mixture that is peat-moss based. Air space in the soil is very important for healthy roots. The best pots for growing gesneriads are the ordinary plastic ones. These will hold moisture well and are light to pick up. Clay pots may accumulate salts around the rim that could damage African violet stems. African violets can stay in the same (3-4 inch) pot for years because these plants do not have an extensive root system. In time the plant, with its overhanging leaves, may seem very out of scale to the pot. When the plant is 3 times wider than the pot, it is time to move it up to the next larger sized pot. Repotting should take place in the spring. Let the plant dry out slightly so that the leaf petioles are somewhat flexible before repotting or else they may snap off.
More Great Windowsill Plants That are NOT African Violets
The lipstick plant is a trailing gesneriad family member botanically called Aeschynanthus. Most of the flowers in this group are bright red or reddish-orange and tubular in shape. One type, Aeschynanthus lobbianus has a flower structure when in bud that looks like a burgundy lipstick case that is winding open to reveal bright red lipstick inside.
Sinningia (gloxinia) is a large and diverse group of plants that contains the large showy trumpet flowers of the florist gloxinia. Also included are miniature plants that are not much larger than a quarter.
Episcia are a gesneriad group that are grown more for their colourful foliage than for their small, single flowers. Episcia ‘Cleopatra’ is one of the favourites because of its leaves which are pale pink, white, and light green. It is very striking but a challenge to grow because of its requirements for a terrarium-like environment with warm temperatures, constant moisture and high humidity. Other Episcias, such as the ones with coppery-green foliage and red flowers are easier to grow. Treat these like African violets.
Newish to the gesneriad scene are the Chiritas which are mostly from damp, semi-shady sites in tropical China. Some people like Chirita sinensis for its leathery, silver foliage, but other members of this family are also attractive for their beautiful lavender, white or yellow miniature Gloxinia-like flowers.
The gesneriad genus called Nematanthus sometimes has a common name of gold fish plant for its small orange, puffy flowers. The orange fish shaped blooms are a nice contrast to the glossy dark green foliage of their mainly trailing plants. A minimum temperature of 15 degrees Celsius will keep these plants sporadically blooming through the winter.
Achimenes are easy to grow tuberous plants that are dormant during the winter and have showy blooms in a wide range of colours during the summer. If these plants inadvertently become too dry during their flowering phase they will just go into dormancy early. Let them rest in a dry location with temperatures above freezing and they will be ready to bloom the following summer. This plant has a common name of hot water plant because water is just about all that this plant needs to spring to life.
Dainty tubular blooms that hand down from downy, upright plants are characteristics of the Kohleria genus. This plant also has an underground rhizome and goes dormant similarly to Achimenes.
The Streptocarpus group of plants are becoming increasingly popular for people who want easy-to-grow houseplants. These plants, also known as cape primrose, are best grown in the same conditions as African violets. They have long strap-like leaves and numerous showy blooms held high above the leaves.
Columnea are mainly trailing plants that have masses of brilliant flowers cascading from along the stems. For maximum production of flowers, water this plant sparingly during the fall for six weeks. Once flower buds appear, water columnea regularly.
 Pretty Pansies It is instant color time in the garden with the addition of pansies, Johnny jump-up (Viola tricolor), or violas! These short-lived perennials are excellent autumn and winter grown plants for the garden. They are usually treated as winter annuals and enjoyed while the tropical plants spend the winter inside or dormant.
The cheerful, round blooms of pansies clear, penciling lines or with blotched faces. What’s not to like!
Many pansies are faintly scented with early morning or dusk being the best time to give them a sniff test. The yellow or blue pansies are reputed to have the strongest scent. Plant many together to concentrate their fragrance or plant them in containers close to a main door.
Great for containers, garden beds, window boxes, etc. with a huge range of colors to coordinate for your designing pleasure.
Pansies love the cool & cold weather. Snow and ice may temporarily slow down their blooms but it won’t stop these tough winter wonders. Many series are hardy to 10 degrees F. Plants were totally encased in ice during our last ice storm and they bounced right back in my garden. Some pansies may exhibit a purple coloration on their leaves during cold weather. Pansies will thrive until the weather turns hot. Most pansies do not tolerate hot and dry weather conditions.
The best conditions to grow pansies are in full sun to part shade with well-drained, organic, compost rich soil. Plant them in the garden anytime from late November (whenever it starts to cool down) through early spring.
Pansies are usually trouble-free but sometimes are attacked by downy or powdery mildew, crown or root rot. Slugs, snails and aphids are potential pests if pansies are grown in shady and moist conditions.
Water them well after planting and mulch to conserve moisture. Fertilize once a month with an all-purpose flowering plant food. Deadhead the finished blooms to keep the plant blooming.
Did you know that there is a town called Pansy in Texas? It is in Crosby County and is named for the attractive flower. Did you also know that pansy flowers are edible (use the ones grown organically).
Cultivars:
Accord Series (large) 8 colors
Crown Series (medium) 9 colors
Crystal Bowl Series (multiflora) 11 colors
Imperial Series (medium) 5 color mixes
Joker Series (medium) 4 colors
Lyric Series (large) 5 colors
Majestic Giants Series (large) 6 colors
Maxim Series (multiflora) 14 colors
Medallion Series (large) 6 colors
Padparadja (multiflora) 1 color
Roc Series (medium) 9 colors
Springtime Series (medium) 17 colors
Swiss Giants (large) old fashioned 5 colors
Universal Series (multiflora) 13 colors
Frangipani, a wildly tropical plant; in name and exotic looking foliage and flower, is a contrast of sorts. The foliage pre-bloom is coarse and the stems lanky, but once the plant opens even one flower – all that changes and the plant becomes a tropical blooming beauty. With exquisite flowers having a richness and depth of color that few flowers can achieve, Frangipani adds “icing to the cake” with an enticing citrusy, cocoa butter/cinnamon fragrance to the garden as well.
 Frangipani blooming in Zilker Botanical Garden, Austin, Texas in May The plant is known as Plumeria, named in honor of the seventeenth century French botanist, Charles Plumier who travelled to the Antilles and Central America recording many plants and animals. At the age of 16 he joined the religious order of the Minims in France and devoted himself to mathematics and physics. After being sent to Rome, Plumier began to study botany and once he returned to France, he began work exploring the coasts of Provence and Languedoc. At the age of 43 he went on his first botanical expedition to the French Antilles. It was a success and he was appointed royal botanist. During his three botany expeditions he was the first to identify and describe the beautiful Fuchsia. The genus name in his honor was originally spelled Plumiera (and some still use this spelling).
The common name, frangipani comes from a sixteenth-century Italian nobleman, the Marquis Frangipani who invented a method of perfuming gloves that came to be known as Frangipani gloves. When the Plumeria flower was discovered, the scent reminded people of the fragrance Frangipani used to scent gloves and so the name began to be associated with the plant too. Another theory for the frangipani name is that the white Plumeria sap resembles the French product frangipanier, a type of coagulated milk.
Plumeria is just a small genus of 8 species originally native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas. The plant was frequently transported by Spanish Catholic priests as they travelled to new areas. Each species has different leaf shapes and growth habits. Many species have naturalized in southern and southeast Asia.
Plumeria is in the Apocynanceae (dogbane) family with oleander and periwinkle. The family contains mainly tall trees found in the tropical rainforests. Plumeria is a deciduous shrubs or small tree here in Central Texas, but in tropical regions Plumeria can grow up to 30 feet high and wide. Plumeria, like Oleander has some poisonous properties, but is not nearly as bad as some of the other family members. The milky sap, found in all plant parts is irritating to the skin, just like many Euphorbias.
 Frangipani blooming in Langkawi, Malaysia The beautiful flowers are admired for their deep and rich in coloration and beautiful shading. Mostly Plumeria flowers can be found in combinations of whites, yellow, corals, pinks, and purples from March through October. New curly blooms have been introduced to add a new twist to the pinwheel effect of the blooms as they unfold. Some cultivars have up to 200 blooms in a cluster (others only 50). The flowers are used for making leis in Hawaii.
Flowers are most fragrant at night in order to lure the sphinx moths to come pollinate them. But, interestingly no nectar is contained in the flower. The moths pollinate the flowers as they search from one to the next looking for the non-existent nectar.
Frangipani can be propagated by taking 4 inch to 1 foot cuttings of the thick stems, allow them to dry off for two weeks (like a cactus) and then sticking them into a gallon pot of a mixture containing 2/3 perlite and 1/3 peat or potting soil. Add a coarse draining material (like pea gravel) on the top 1 inch of the pot. Water well, then let the soil dry before watering again. Spring cuttings will take about 90 days to produce a full root ball – when they can be transplanted.
Plumeria seeds are not true to the parent plant, but if you are willing to experiment to find new colors – this is the way. The reds and pinks apparently reveal the greatest variation in color. The few Plumeria seeds produced have a long narrow wing attached to the seed. Insert the seed so that it is under the soil and the wing is sticking above the soil. Keep the potting soil moist and germination should take place in about 21 days.
Grow Plumeria in full sun (or at least 6 hours) for the best blooms. It is one of the most sun and wind tolerant of the tropical plants. Plant it in well drained (particularly during the winter), organic soils. Prune the plant during the active growing season. Try to prune for a pleasing shape but this is not often possible because of the natural way that Plumeria grow. The leaves tend to grow only near the branch tips and few branches are produced. Pests are few, but sometimes scale is a problem and rot when too much moisture is present around the roots.
 Fragrant Frangipani at sunset in Langkawi Plumeria are not very winter hardy – only to zone 9. Protect from cold damage when temperatures dip below 40 deg. F. and especially if frost is forecast. Use frost cloth or mulch inground to ensure that the roots will overwinter in Central Texas. Grow in a pot and move to a protected location. Often the cooler weather will cause the leaves to drop in the fall. If temps drop below 32 deg. F. plant stems turn to mush. Some frangipani growers bury their plants underground to protect them from the winter cold temperatures. The cultivar ‘Texas Sunshine’ is reputed to be one of the most cold tolerant (to 25 deg. F). Other supposedly hardy Plumerias are ‘Celadine”, ‘Aztec Gold’ and ‘Samoan Fluff.’
There are over 300 named varieties of Plumeria.
St. Joseph’s Lily, Hardy Amaryllis, Johnson’s Amaryllis, Bouquet Amaryllis
The stunning St. Joseph’s Lily (Hippeastrum x johnsonii) that is so fondly associated with many Southern gardens originated as a chance cross between Amaryllis (Hippeastrum) vittata and A. reginae (both originally from South America). One of the first hybrid Amaryllis, it was perhaps unintentionally crossed by Arthur Johnson, a British watchmaker from Prescott in Lancashire between 1799 and 1810. First described and illustrated in 1816 by Pierre-Joseph Redoute, the plant was originally called Amaryllis brasiliensis and later referred to as Amaryllis johnsonii in 1831. The bulb could have been lost during the early days, but luckily Mr. Johnson shared his new plants with the Liverpool Botanic Garden before his greenhouse was accidently destroyed, along with everything inside. The plant made its way into cultivation in the US by the mid 1800s. And now after almost 200 years and few nursery offerings, the bulb is being propagated by Tony Avent using tissue culture and should be more readily available now.
 Hardy Amaryllis aka St. Joseph St Joseph’s Lily is a true passalong plant and garden heirloom, spreading from neighbor to neighbor or through family ties in the South. It is a plant that can often be found blooming in abandoned homesteads and older cemeteries. In Perennial Garden Color, Dr Bill C. Welch calls them “living antiques because they are tangible symbols of success for generations of Southern gardeners. Many have been lovingly handed down among the families that contribute cultural diversity and richness to our gardens.” Many call this bulb the finest amaryllis for Southern gardens.
This tough plant is one of the hardiest amaryllis and is hardy to zone 7 (maybe even zone 5 or 6 with heavy mulch protection). It requires little care and is a member of the “takes a licking and keeps on ticking-blooming plants”. The ease that it returns to bloom each spring and multiplies (perennializing here) without much or any attention is one of the nicest attributes of this plant and makes it a great “first plant” for younger gardeners. It slowly spreads by bulb offsets without being invasive.
The leaves are thick masses of evergreen, semi-evergreen or deciduous (depending on the winter temperatures), strap-like foliage up to 30” long. In Central Texas, the leaves usually don’t die back and stay evergreen. In the sun, the foliage has a coppery hue. Plant height is a dramatic 24” tall when blooming. Some gardeners report this bulb is avoided by deer.
St. Joseph’s lily blooms in late winter to early summer (usually March-April here), has a spicy fragrance and often has 5-6 blooms per stalk. The bright red tepals (undifferentiated petals and sepals) with white “stars” on the throat form large trumpet-shaped blooms. Some mature bulbs can have up to 4 stalks (~24 blooms) on one plant and many bloom for a month.
The plant has average water requirements during the year and will even go dormant in the summer if there is less water. To avoid rotting the bulb, do not overwater it. It is a good xeric plant that can survive hot, dry summers. Either irrigate this plant during the summer to keep the foliage healthy or let it go dormant. Tolerant of full sun to part shade. Soil pH is ideal when acidic to neutral (5.5-7.5) and good drained is preferred. This bulb is more tolerant of heavy clay soils than other Amaryllis – but good drainage is needed in colder locations during the winter.
Like all amaryllis, St. Joseph’s Lily can be grown indoors but it is a little more finicky than the modern types and doesn’t bloom as well in a pot. The cut flowers can last a week or more in a vase.
The most popular type of propagation for gardeners is separation of the bulblets in the fall. They can be started from seed, but being a hybrid the offspring will probably be different than the mother plant. The plant rarely sets seed. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe. A wholesale tissue culture lab in Eustis, Florida called AG3 is now propagating this plant in greater quantities than previously done. At present it is rarely available in the nursery trade and can command $18 for one very large bulb, but with tissue culture, there should be many more available at a reduced price.
It is believed that the common name St. Joseph’s Lily is in reference to its blooming time which coincides in some areas with St. Joseph’s Day on March 19th.
 Striking red and white blooms of the St. Joseph's Lily
The Mighty Osage Orange
The tree with too many names to remember is unforgettable to anyone who has picked up the bumpy, greenish-yellow, citrus-smelling fruit in the fall. The Osage orange is a tree with a history. It is an unassuming tree that was instrumental in settling the wild frontier. Through the years and across the continent it was called Bodare Us, Bodark, Bodeck, Bodock, Bois d’arc, Bowwood, Geelhout, Hedge, Hedge Apple, Hedge-plant, Horse Apple, Maclura, Mock Orange, Naranjo Chino, Osage, Osage Apple-Tree, Rootwood, Wild Orange, or Yellow-Wood. Originally the First Nations People of the Omaha-Ponca called it Zho-nzi-zhu, which meant yellow flesh wood tree and the Pima called it S’hoitgam kawli meaning thorny fence. To all it is a remarkable tree that offers shelter, protection, strong wood, and interesting fruit.
 Osage Orange Tree Botanically, it is called Maclura pomifera, named after William Maclure (1763-1840), who was an American geologist. The species epithet, pomifera means bearing fruit, pomes, or apples which refers to the large, green, grapefruit-like fruit. The Osage name came from French settlers who called the Wazhazhe natives by that name. These natives lived near the trees native habitat. The tree was incorrectly called an orange for the citrus smell of the fruit skin when it is ripe.
French settlers found that the Southern Native people used the highly prized, flexible, and firm wood for bows. It was such a superior wood that it was used for trading, as gifts, or for bartering well beyond its native range. Many archers still consider osage orange wood to be the best in the world for their bows. The common name of bodark (and its variations) is a colloquialism for the French words “Bois d’Arc” meaning wood of the bow. White settlers found that the tree had many additional desirable qualities. It was tough and durable, transplanted easily, and tolerated poor soils, extreme heat, and strong winds. Osage orange trees also had no serious insect or disease problems.
How did osage orange, which produces no building lumber, get planted in greater numbers than any other tree species? Osage oranges were much prized as impenetrable hedges invaluable before the invention of barbed wire. Their dense growth and foreboding thorns were used to keep cattle and horses contained. After barbed wire made hedge fences obsolete, the trees were still used as a source of fence posts and as windbreaks to stop soil erosion. Their strong wood could withstand termites and rot for decades. Osage orange is considered one of the most durable woods in North America. This small tree was planted as living fences or hedges along the boundaries of farms and homesteads and was prized as a divisional fence because timber was scarce in many regions of the mid-western United States. The trees were a good fence alternative that cost little to grow, lasted for generations, needed no repairs other than pruning, and kept out stock of all sizes large or small.
 Osage Orange fruit Osage orange trees have been such a common sight through the Great Plains and eastward to the New England states that it is easy to assume that they are part of the native plant community through this area. To date osage orange has been planted in all 48 continental United States and South-eastern Canada where it can survive in hardiness zone 5. The well-travelled osage orange was originally native to a very small area. It grew in south-western Arkansas, south-eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. Most of its native habitat is along the Red River valley through these three states and also in the Blackland Prairies, Post Oak Savannahs and Chisos Mountains of Texas. It has since escaped and naturalized throughout the eastern and north-western US.
Osage orange is a medium-sized tree with leaves that are up to 20 cm long. The leaves have smooth margins and are tapered to a sharp tip. The best identification features are 1 cm short thorns that are located where the leaf petiole attaches to the twigs. The fruit is very noticeable in the fall once the leaves have fallen. It is a large, green, wrinkled, cannonball-size fruit that ripens in the late fall to a yellow colour. The fruit may be so numerous that tree branches will bend under their weight. The rock-hard, unripe fruit could weigh as much as one kilogram each. Cutting open the fruit will reveal a solid centre surrounded by about 200 seeds and a sticky white sap that can cause dermatitis. The seeds are loved by squirrels who, with great determination, tear apart the fruit to get their food. Since most birds, livestock, and animals find the fruit unpalatable, there’s usually plenty for the squirrels.
Osage orange is a member of a small group of plants that are dioecious and have separate male and female flowers on different plants. The female trees have small green flowers that open just after the leaves unfold. The male flowers are one inch long racemes found on terminal leaf spurs. The pollen is light and travels with the wind. Sometimes female trees will produce abundant fruit without having a male tree nearby, but the fruit will not have any seeds.
 Osage Orange Fruit The loss of thousands of kilometres of osage orange hedgerows and the ensuing loss of wildlife habitat is a concern. It is estimated that over 400,000 kilometres of fence lines were once planted with osage orange trees from New Jersey to Ontario and south to Texas. Now only the remnants of these vast hedgerows remain 150 years later. Preserving our historical plantings is a goal that should be recognized very soon.
What does the future hold for the osage orange? Plenty of interest is on the horizon about new uses. The fruit is reputed to have insecticidal properties. The heartwood, bark, and roots have extracts that may be used in food processing and dye making. Already, the tree has its own websites dedicated to cultural information, bow making, and gardener testimonials at www.osageorange.com and http://hedgeapple.com.
This fall, if a scenic journey takes you travelling through the countryside, look for the old gnarled trees in a long forgotten hedgerow. If these trees have large yellow-green fruit, think back to the early settlers and their bushel baskets full of grapefruit-like fruit travelling across the land in their quest to find their new home.
All images in this article have been used under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike License and were originally published at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclura_pomifera.
 Clematis 'John Warren' Pruning Group 2 The beauty of Clematis is evident no matter what name it is called – traveller’s joy, old man’s beard, leather flower, vase vine or virgin’s bower.
The large, exquisite blooms of the Jackmanii type of clematis and similar types are really spectacular in the summer. With a little care, this durable and dependable, large flowering clematis can be a show-stopper in the garden.
 Clematis 'Princess Diana' Pruning Group 3 Clematis, as a group, do have a lot of diversity, gardeners just have to look beyond the large flowering Jackmanii types. There are clematis with flowers that are tiny bells or fragrant puffs of white petals that seem to float in the air. A wide range of flower types and blooming times give gardeners many options to enjoy this (mostly) climbing plant.
 Clematis 'Pohjanael' Pruning Group 3 The one major hindrance for gardeners is the mystery of when and how much to prune. Pruning at the wrong time can sacrifice that season’s blooms, or pruning too little could deposit all the blooms at the far reaches of the stems. The secret to pruning clematis correctly is to identify where the flowers are supposed to be blooming. With this information, clematis can be grouped according to whether the flowers are formed on the last year’s wood or on the current season’s stems. Timing, in addition to the type and amount of shoots to remove, will be determined by where the flowers are formed. If clematis are pruned at the wrong time or pruned haphazardly without consideration to timing, then the current season’s blooms or the next season’s blooms are in jeopardy.
 Several types of Clematis growing up a trellis Clematis can be placed into three pruning groups. Group 1 includes those that bloom in the late spring or early summer and that flower on the previous season’s mature wood (last years stems). This is the smallest and least known of the three groups. Clematis that fall into this category are mostly Clematis alpina, Clematis montana, Clematis macropetala and their cultivars. Typically the blooms from clematis in this group are smaller, single and either bell-shaped or saucer-shaped. It is important to prune group 1 clematis after they have flowered (in early summer). This also includes carefully removing any dead or damaged stems. If necessary, shorten the healthy stems just enough to keep the plant contained where you want it. Do not prune this group late in the season or else the blooms for the next year will be removed.
 Clematis 'Blue Light' Pruning Group 2 Group 2 includes the early-summer, large-flowered cultivars that bloom on new shoots growing from the previous year’s growth. These clematis also bloom again toward the end of summer as the current year’s shoots mature. Clematis in this group hold their blooms upright, are mostly saucer-shaped and can be single, semi-double or fully double. This group is the biggest and contains many of the most popular and well-known clematis. The large-flowered types are usually the least vigorous clematis. Prune this group in early spring just before new growth starts. Remove dead and damaged stems and prune back all remaining stems to healthy buds. This minor pruning creates a framework for the blooming shoots.
 Clematis x durandii Pruning Group 3 Group 3 is a very diverse group of clematis that all bloom on current year’s shoots during the summer and into the autumn. This includes the late-blooming, large-flowered cultivars which have flowers that are mostly outward facing, saucer-shaped and can be single, semi-double or fully double. Group 3 also has late-flowering species, herbaceous species and small flowering cultivars. The small flowering cultivars could be single or double, be saucer-shaped, star-shaped, bell-shaped, tulip-shaped or tubular. Group 3 clematis can be pruned the most severely of all the groups since they bloom on the current season’s growth. Prune this group down to 30 cm from the ground in the early spring before growth starts if you need to control the ultimate height of climbing plants.
 Clematis 'General Sikorski' Pruning Group 2 Clematis grow best when their feet are cool and mulched or in the shade and their heads are in the sun. To accomplish this, mulch or plant a shorter perennial at the base of the clematis to shade its roots. Clematis have a soil preference that is neutral or slightly alkaline and should be well-drained and rich. Never let clematis dry out.
 Clematis 'Inspiration' Pruning Group 3 Clematis wilt is a serious problem that has devastating results. Young members of group 3 (the late-blooming large-flowered types) seem to be more susceptible to this problem than other groups. Clematis wilt is a broad term to describe plants (or portions thereof) that wilt when the soil is moist. To reduce the chances of clematis wilt, plant climbing types with the top of the root ball 8 cm below the soil surface. This encourages the plant to produce strong shoots below the soil surface. If a plant suddenly wilts for no visible reason, prune it at the base and dispose of the wilted stems. In some cases, the plant will send up a new healthy shoot.
 Clematis 'John Warren' Pruning Group 2 There are pleasant surprises when growing some clematis. The doubles will often bloom first as doubles and then later in the summer as singles. They could even change their flower colour slightly for the single blooms. This is like having two different plants growing in the same location. An interesting situation arises if a severe winter kills the top growth of double clematis. They will send up shoots from the base and only have single blooms that year. The re-blooming members of Group 2 also have slightly different flowers as the season progresses. The later flush of blooms could be smaller or single and differ in colour from the first blooms. Many clematis have the added bonus of having decorative, fluffy, round seed heads. Clematis tangutica, a yellow, bell-shaped flowering plant, is one of the best for this showy feature.
 Clematis 'Omoshiro' Group 2 Clematis have unfortunately been stereotyped into one narrow use in the garden. They have traditionally been grown up a trellis against a house. There’s even been debates about whether clematis look better growing up a trellis or arbour instead of on a wall. The time has come to consider the many other uses for clematis. Use them woven through a chain link fence. They can also be used as a vine groundcover over an eyesore that should be hidden. Be more daring and grow clematis up the base of a tree or through shrubs. They look great climbing up through an old shrub rose.
 Clematis 'Piilu' Pruning Group 2 There’s another mystery to solve. Should gardeners say kle-matis or klem-ah-tis? The latter would be usually better received among a group of British horticulturists. The former is perfectly fine when complimenting your neighbour over the back fence. The choice is yours and it depends on your audience. The name is from the Greek word “clema” which means tendril and was used for several climbing plants.
The mysteries of the clematis are easy to unravel once the blooming time is identified. Explore the beautiful world of magnificent clematis blooms for your garden from spring to fall.
Pennsylvania Horticultural Society names the 2010 Gold Medal Winners
The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS) has chosen five outstanding woody plants as their 2010 Gold Medal plant winners.
Since 1979, the Gold Medal program has recognized plants of outstanding merit, though often underused and they may not necessarily be new to the nursery trade. The winners are chosen for their superb eye-appeal, performance and hardiness in Zones 5-7. They are also judged for their beauty in many seasons, whether it be their foliage, flower or structural form. Gold Medal winners exhibit standards of excellence for hardiness, disease and pest resistance, and ease of growing when planted and maintained as recommended.
The 2010 Gold Medal winners are:
Clethra alnifolia ‘Compacta’ (Dwarf Summersweet)
 Clethra alnifolia 'Compacta' (Dwarf Summersweet) In the mid-1970s Tom Dilatush, a noted nurseryman and longtime PHS Gold Medal committee member, discovered Clethra alnifolia ‘Compacta’ growing on a New Jersey compost pile. Tom was impressed by its superior landscape characteristics, and his keen observation was reaffirmed 30 years later by the high marks the plant received in the PHS Gold Medal trial. Tom had originally called this plant ‘Tom’s Compact’ but it was shortened to ‘Compacta’. Still the plant is a superior variety of summersweet, displaying darker, glossier leaves and a more compact, denser growth habit than other cultivars.
 Clethra alnifolia 'Compacta' (Dwarf Summersweet) This “mulch-mound-miracle” is also hardier and more floriferous. What else could you ask for? Oh, yes, it’s also native, low-maintenance, and moderately deer-resistant. Uses include the foundation, border, in mass, the shady container, and the naturalized garden. It is best planted in part sun, but it tolerates all light conditions. ‘Compacta’ grows about 3 ½ feet high by 4 feet wide and prefers well-drained organic soil. Hardy in Zones 4 to 9.
Ilex Red Beauty ‘Rutzan’ (Red Beauty Holly)
 Ilex Red Beauty 'Rutzan' (Red Beauty Holly) As the name implies, this holly bursts into an eye-catching sensation when its berries ripen in the autumn, far outperforming other evergreen hollies. Handsome dark glossy evergreen leaves create a densely branched pyramidal tree. Introduced by Elwin R. Orton at Rutgers, Red Beauty is a result of years of cross-breeding between Ilex aquifolium, Ilex rugosa, and Ilex pernyi. Essentially, it’s half Meserve (blue) holly and half Perny holly.
 Ilex Red Beauty 'Rutzan' (Red Beauty Holly) For berry production, Red Beauty needs a male pollinator; use any of the blue male hollies such as Ilex ‘Blue Boy’, ‘Blue Prince’, or ‘Blue Stallion’ and plant one or two within 100 feet. (When selecting a site for the males, remember that they don’t produce berries.)
Plant Red Beauty in sun to part-sun in well-drained acidic soil. It is best used as a specimen tree or as a well-placed accent plant. It grows to about 15 feet high and is hardy in Zones 6 to 9.
Illicium floridanum ‘Halley’s Comet’ (’Halley’s Comet’ Florida Anise)
 Illicium floridanum 'Halley's Comet' ('Halley's Commet' Florida Anise) Do you need a head-high evergreen for that shady spot? Look no further. Illicium floridanum ‘Halley’s Comet’ can fill this niche. A deer-proof shrub native to the southeastern United States, Florida anise produces 4-inch-long dark green leaves (similar to Rhododendron), which emit a strong, pleasant fragrance when bruised. Outperforming the species and other cultivars, ‘Halley’s Comet’ has superior characteristics, including improved cold tolerance and faster growth. It’s also a better bloomer, with plenty of large, red, star-shaped flowers that bloom in May and can persist into the summer.
 Illicium floridanum 'Halley's Comet' ('Halley's Commet' Florida Anise) Florida Anise thrives in shady, moist, well-drained soil and tolerates part-shade. Too much sun, though, will cause it to turn yellowish. Hardy in Zones 6 to 9. Steve Mostardi of Mostardi Nursery in Newtown Square, PA, and chairman of the Gold Medal Committee adds, “Another great attribute of this plant is its ability to be tolerant of dry shade once it becomes established in the landscape.”
Juniperus conferta ‘Silver Mist’ (’Silver Mist’ Shore Juniper)
 Juniperus conferta 'Silver Mist' ('Silver Mist' Shore Juniper) Juniperus conferta ‘Silver Mist’, is a unique species within a very common genus. This shore juniper is salt-tolerant and well-adapted for the seashore garden. This urban-tolerant evergreen was selected for its dense, more compact growth habit; exceptional bright silvery-blue needles; and robust, versatile demeanor. It is hardy in Zones 5b to 9.
 Juniperus conferta 'Silver Mist' ('Silver Mist' Shore Juniper) Barry Yinger found ‘Silver Mist’ in a small Japanese nursery and introduced it through Brookside Gardens in Wheaton, Md. He notes, “This distinctive form of the Japanese shore juniper has fluffy bright silver needles on a spreading plant that usually is less than a foot tall. It is extremely tolerant of heat and drought and is best used in a bright, sunny location with excellent drainage.
If planted 2 to 3 feet apart, it will make an unusual ground cover that is beautiful all year around.”
Styrax japonicus ‘Sohuksan’ (Emerald Pagoda Snowbell)
 Styrax japonicus 'Sohuksan' (Emerald Pagoda Snowbell) In 1985, a group of plant explorers organized by the U.S. National Arboretum visited some remote islands off the southwest coast of South Korea. On Sohuksan Island, the group collected a distinctive form of the Japanese snowbell with a superior plant habit, large, glossy leaves, and very large fruit. Thanks to the horticultural wizardry of the late Dr. J.C. Raulston, a cutting he carried back to the North Carolina State Arboretum survived and established this tree in cultivation.
 Styrax japonicus 'Sohuksan' (Emerald Pagoda Snowbell) Its larger glossy leaves are sun-tolerant, and its large white flowers are highly fragrant. It naturally makes a single-stemmed, medium-size tree attaining about 30 feet in cultivation, growing very fast in its first years and then more slowly.
It grows best in fertile, well-drained soil in light shade with morning sun. It is sun-tolerant, but should not be planted in a hot, dry location. Hardy in Zones 5 to 8.
For a complete listing of plants with profiles and sources, go to www.goldmedalplants.com.
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