Learn how to become a plant doctor – No Ph.D. required is the selling pitch on the cover of this new book. The irony of this statement is that this book is written by a Ph.D.  But it certainly doesn’t read like an academic book. It is a hands-on, practical book that will be a big help with identifying and deciding on a course of treatment for many plant problems in any garden.

Co-Author David Deardorff is a plant pathologist and botanist who lives and gardens in Port Townsend, Washington.  Kathryn Wadsworth is a naturalist who shares her love and gardening and the outdoors through writing and photography.  Although the authors hail from the Northwest, the garden problems they describe are pretty much universal across the continent.

Good books to help serious gardeners and Master Gardeners identify plant problems are really rare. Many include plant problems with a slew of other subjects and are so “boiled down” that they simplify everything so much that they can be dangerously inadequate because of their omissions.  Others have such inaccurate drawings that even if you recognize the problem, the picture in the book bears no resemblance.  Or some books think that they are being global in their scope but they really are addressing just NE plant problems.  A Visual Guide to Easy Diagnosis and Organic Remedies by David Deardorff and Kathryn Wadsworth tries to overcome these shortfalls — common to other plant pest and disease books and really be a valuable tool for the organic gardener.

Dealing with a sick plant is one of the most frustrating situations a gardener can face. If only plants could talk, we would be able to deal with problems easier.  With this book, gardeners can learn to read the signs that plant show and take action to cure common plant maladies.  The book is organized in an easy visual (either drawing or picture) clue style.  

Part One has illustrated flow charts or keys, that are organized by the plant part on which the symptoms appear (such as “the leaf has raised bumps, warts or weird growth”).  This first part is a simple series of statements that use yes or no questions to narrow down the problem choices.  When a possible diagnosis is determined, readers follow the clue to Part Two which holds a solution where the problem is explained, often confirmed with a photo or drawing, and a safe, organic solution. Part Three – What Does It Look Like? contains a photo gallery of common stressed, damaged or diseased plants. A simple format that will help solve plant problems even without knowing the plant name.

An impressive 451 pages (although some pages in Part One have a fair amount of white space), $24.95 and published by the good gardening people at Timber Press.

Check out the authors’ blog on gardens, gardening and pests called Deardorff and Wadsworth at http://ddandkw.com.

Whatever the skill level, gardening often changes a person into something better.  Gardening does have a positive effect on people.  Many studies have shown that being around plants lowers the blood pressure and calms the nerves.  Except for dealing with a wisteria that refuses to bloom after seven years of vigorous growth, the physical activity and emotional healing experienced while gardening will have a positive effect.

What are the qualities that make a good gardener?   A love of plants is expected but often a love of all living things prevails.  Gardeners often have a kind heart for birds, animals, and small children in addition to their love of plants.  Gardeners by nature seem to be nurturers and caring people.  Accepting the responsibility of caring for plants (animals and birds) makes us nurturers at heart.  How can we help not being this way?

One of the most important qualities needed to be a good gardener, and what sets our pastime apart from many others, is a good old-fashioned dose of patience.  Patience is a fleeting virtue among the “need it now”, instant gratification world.  Luckily patience is not a vanishing quality among gardeners.  Gardeners have shown lots of patience when they spend two years looking at an algae covered pot of soil while hoping that the cold and heat treatments would get the finicky seed to grow.  Even growing relatively fast crops like tomatoes are an undertaking of four to six weeks before they can be put outside in the garden.  The anticipation of biting into that first ripe tomato teaches patience. 

Connected with patience is a strong determination among gardeners to see a project through to the end or at least until the plant flowered.  Orchid growers are especially determined gardeners.  They buy the tiniest plants and through sheer determination, raise them to flowering stage years later.  Luckily a lot of orchids bloom for weeks so that these gardeners can savour their achievement for a long time. 

Along with the sheer determination needed to train plants in an espalier form against a wall or trim bonsai with mini-shears, gardeners often have stamina.  Stamina is different than determination.  Determination and perseverance requires will power and drive.  Stamina takes both of this plus physical endurance.  Stamina is spending an afternoon edging the entire driveway with a manual lawn edger (without many complaints) and then digging out the dandelions from the lawn. 

A gardener with a sense of purpose is one with a vision.  Having a vision and being able to picture the anticipated end result is a valuable quality that will eliminate lots of unnecessary frustration.  A vision is the roadmap to follow when creating the garden.  Gardeners should have a clear vision when they set out to create their botanical statement. This anticipated picture may change somewhat between the start and finish but it is key to success.

Being creative is the fun part of creating the vision.  Gardeners are continually showing their creativity with new plant combinations and innovative accessories for the garden. Letting the creative ideas flow freely brings out some amazing results.  Ingenuity is frequently linked with creativity.  This ability to make do with whatever is nearby is also a trait that is particularly strong in gardeners.  There are always makeshift trellises for the climbing beans, temporary compost piles or a new way to stake tomatoes (with hockey sticks?) showing this ingenuity in gardeners.  

Gardeners are a very reliable and dedicated group given the unforgiving nature of their charges.  Anyone growing seedlings, bonsai, or hanging baskets is destined to be reliable when plant care is involved (or they won’t be growing for long).  Getting water to a parched plant is crucial or they cease to exist.  The more reliable the gardener the better gardener they will be.  Wouldn’t this be a great way to teach this skill to young children?

Given the unpredictability of the weather, gardeners had better have a good sense of humour.  Marble size hail dropping from the sky and shredding the leaves of hosta, cannas or bananas is not a sight for the uptight.  Mother nature likes to play tricks so gardeners have to learn to live with it.   For other challenges, like the dog rolling over a prized delphinium and snapping it off at the ground, the healthiest response is the grin-and-bear-it one.  Even if this plant was the one that was started from seeds that came all the way from England.

Being forgiving goes along with having a sense of humor.  When a treasured plant dies, the garden does not cease to exist.  Good gardeners have a forgiving nature that allows them to look at the opportunities present and start anew.  Plant life and death situations in the garden are a frequent occurrence that cannot be avoided.

Gardeners always have intimate knowledge of everyone’s favorite subject – the weather. Gardeners are keenly aware of the weather because it affects their gardening life.  This interest in weather allows gardeners to strike up a conversation anywhere with other gardeners.  Sometimes a conversation with a new gardener friend will even result in plants exchanging hands.  Gardeners are also very willing to share their plants with others.  Sending a part of ones garden home with an admirer is a tradition that goes back to pioneer days.  Gardeners are a generous lot. 

Lastly, gardeners have a love for plants, flower and nature that gives them an appreciation for the finer things in life.

Introduction
Squash, the native North American vegetable, was cultivated by the Cochise peoples in New Mexico where unearthed remains dated back to 4000 B.C. Squash and corn are two of the oldest sources of food grown in North America.

Today, squash is easy to grow from seed and can be successfully grown by beginning gardeners. It is one of the most diverse vegetable classes with more than twenty squash sizes or shapes, ranging in color from blue gray, orange and pink to golden yellow, pastel green, cream and forest green. Squash is receiving acclaim for its nutritional value, containing both vitamins and essential minerals.

‘Papaya Pear’ Squash

History
Squash was one of the first crops grown in the prehistory of the New World. Our earliest physical evidence comes from the Ocampo caves in Tamaulipas, Mexico, where several species of squash have been found along with the remains of gourds, jack beans, and other crops. These remains date to about 7000-5000 B.C.

The National Garden Bureau found the earliest use of squash was by the Cochise Indians in what is now the southwestern United States. Remains of domesticated squash dating to about 4000 B.C. were found at Bat Cave, New Mexico, along with the remains of pod corn, a primitive ancestor of what we know today as corn. This is strong evidence that squash predates corn as a domesticated crop.

For centuries after the introduction of agriculture into North America, farming was practiced primarily by Indian tribes of the Southwest, and the base of their agriculture was corn and squash. About 300-500 A.D. beans were introduced into the technology, and the farming of corn, bean and squash, by a tribe called the Anasazi, marked the beginning of a new era of prosperity. Squash is not only one of the oldest of the New World crops, it became almost universally grown.

In 1276 a major drought began in the Southwest that would last until 1299. The drought caused a migration of the southwestern tribes to the south and southeast. With the migration went the knowledge of their farming technology. By the time the Europeans arrived in 1492, variations of the corn/bean/squash technology were seen wherever corn was grown. The early settlers survived because they gained this knowledge from the Indians.

Research conducted by the National Garden Bureau found the reason why these three crops were so often grown in one plot. As the corn, bean and squash technology evolved among the Indians, they came to practice a very effective polycultural technique. The corn stalk provided a pole for the beans, and the squash was grown as a ground cover. The squash provided food, but also helped control weeds, provided kindling for cooking, and produced a good organic mulch.

The knowledge of squash seems to have entered the written records of Europe late in the 16th century. We can surmise that many settlers recorded their knowledge of this and other New World plants in their private diaries and letters home. But for the formal introduction of the plants we can look to one Thomas Hariot, a mathematician, who accompanied an expedition financed by Sir Walter Raleigh. Mr. Hariot returned to England with samples of squash and knowledge of its use learned from the Indians. In 1588, Hariot published a report that was described as the first book in English devoted to the flora and fauna of what is now the United States. Cucurbita pepo was included in the 1633 edition of Gerard’s Herbal.

The 21st century home gardener would easily recognize today’s squash from this vivid Elizabethan description. “The great long Pompion which bringeth forth thicke and rough prickly stalkes, which with their clasping tendrils take hold upon such things as are neere unto them…the floures be very great like unto a bell cup, of a yellow colour like gold, having five corners standing out like teeth…the fruite is great, thick, round, set with tick ribbes, like edges sticking forth.”

Nomenclature
Squash is a member of the family Cucurbitacea, which includes some 90 genera and 700 species of plants. They are described as tendril climbing herbs from the tropic and temperate zones, grown for the edible fruits and for ornament. In addition to squash and pumpkins, the cucurbit family includes such familiar plants as cucumbers, melons and gourds, as well as hundreds of lesser-known herbs. Three species, C.maxima, C.moschata, and C.pepo, all contain varieties listed as squash. Squashes are commonly designated as “summer” or “winter” while most of the summer squash are from C.pepo, the winter squash occur in all three species.

Classification
Summer squash is grown and harvested during the summer. The squash grows on plants that are fairly narrow at base, widening to about 3-5½ feet across at the top. Their leaves are generally long, lobed, serrated at the edges, and dark green or green mottled with silver. Summer squash is sown and harvested when soil and air temperatures are warm. Its flavor is best when picked and eaten at its immature stage; that is, before the seeds are fully developed and while the outer skin is still soft and tender.

Winter squash grows most often on big, vigorous vines or on a semi-bush. Leaves of the winter squash often exceed 15 inches or more in length and width, are generally round and may be matte or glossy-surfaced. Winter squash has an assortment of fruit size and shapes. They may be spherical, oval, or acorn shaped. The skin can be smooth, warty, or grooved and the color varies from white, yellow or orange to green, blue or black. Winter squash needs warm weather for germination and fruit set, but requires cool nights as it reaches maturity. This is necessary for sugar to accumulate and produce the sweet flavor winter squash is known for. These varieties require a longer growing season and are harvested when fruits are mature with fully developed seeds and a hard rind.

Summer Squashes:
Crookneck/Straightneck, Scallop/Patty pan, Zucchini (above), Vegetable marrow

Winter Squashes:

Acorn (above), Banana, Buttercup, Butternut, Delicata, Delicious, Hubbard (below) 

Miscellaneous Squashes:

Edible Gourds, Turban, Vegetable Spaghetti

Planning Your Garden
The first step in planning is to choose a sunny location, as squash needs full sun all day to mature and set fruit. Squash requires more space than many other garden vegetables, so advance planning is worthwhile.

Summer and winter squash have different space needs and will be discussed separately.

Most summer squash varieties have a bush habit and many of the newer hybrids have been bred for compact plant size. Plan on four square feet for each plant. This is a relatively early crop, producing fruit in about two months. Summer squash has many culinary uses from salads to stir-fry. However, they do not store well and are best used within several days of harvesting.

Most winter squash have a vining or semi-bush habit, although some newer varieties are bush. Vining types need a larger area than do the bush varieties. Plan on 12 square feet for each vining plant. Small-fruited winter squash can be trained on a 4-foot high trellis. The trellis should be placed toward the rear of the garden so that the vines do not shade other vegetables. Since it takes eighty to one hundred thirty days to produce mature winter squash, these varieties are best suited to areas of North America with a long growing season.

The phrase “growing season” simply means the number of frost free days in an area. The county extension agent can tell you the average dates of the last frost in spring and the first frost in fall. The difference between the two is the length of the growing season. Most seeds must be sown after the last frost in spring and the fruit harvested before the first frost in autumn. Seed catalogs and seed packets print a “days to maturity” designation for each plant variety. The designation includes the number of days from sowing to harvest. For example, if a particular variety takes seventy days to mature and your growing season is greater than seventy days, that variety is suitable for your location.

Because squash has such a long productive season, it is a heavy feeder. To fortify the soil, spade in organic materials such as well-rotted manure or compost before seeding. Later in the growing season, an application of a balanced fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, will replace the necessary nutrients.

Far North Gardens
Although direct sowing is the simplest and most effective way to plant squash, gardeners in the northern zones may wish to start seed indoors. Begin about three weeks prior to the last frost date. As squash has fairly large seeds, sow one seed in each pot. If peat pots are used, they can be planted directly into the garden, thus lessening transplant shock. While indoors, site the pots in full sun or under fluorescent lights; harden off outdoors, then transplant.

Sowing Seeds
There are two main ways to sow seeds in the garden; which the gardener chooses depends on space limitations and personal preference. The first method is planting in a series of hills, leaving 4 feet between hills. To create a hill, mound the earth in a cone shape about 5 inches high. Make a saucer like depression in the top of the mound and plant a half dozen seeds in a circle. Cover the seeds with 1 inch of fine soil or vermiculite. Once seeds have sprouted and grown a full set of true leaves, thin to three plants per hill. If more than one row of hills is desired, space rows 5 feet apart. The use of hills makes it easier for the gardener to walk all around the plants to water, weed and cultivate. In addition, a raised planting area warms the soil and improves drainage.

The second method is row planting. Plan to space the rows 6 feet apart to allow for plant growth, to promote good air circulation and to give the gardener easy access to the plants. Begin by sowing two to three seeds per foot, but thin to one squash about every 2 feet once true leaves emerge. Gardeners who live in areas with at least one hundred fifty frost-free days might consider a second planting of summer squash. Remove the first planting of squash after harvest. Seeding again between July 1 and August 15 will lengthen harvest times and avoid the “Zucchini Bumper Crop Blues” that can afflict many of us in late summer.

Plan to grow squash varieties suited to your climate and growing season as well as to your family’s taste.

Soil Preparation
Squash does best on a well-drained and aerated soil. If your garden site has heavy clay soil, till to improve drainage. Squash prefers soil that is neither too acid nor too alkaline; pH levels of 5.5 to 6.8 are acceptable. To learn the pH level of your garden, contact your county cooperative agency for information on soil testing.

Germination time can be hastened somewhat by presoaking seeds to soften their hard coat. Soak in tepid water for no longer than twenty-four hours; if seeds are allowed to remain wet, they are more susceptible to decay causing organisms. Dry the seed carefully before planting. Delay sowing seed until after danger of frost is past and soil temperature has warmed up to a minimum of 70ºF. At a soil temperature of 80ºF, seeds should sprout in three to five days.

Cultivation
Cultivation of squash is not difficult, provided the gardener remembers a few basic requirements. Winter squash is fairly drought resistant once the plants are established, but summer squash needs a regular water supply during its blossom and fruit development. Both types should receive enough water weekly, either through rain or irrigation, to wet the soil to a depth of 10 to 20 inches. Drip or ground irrigation is preferable to overhead watering because wet leaves may encourage the formation of foliar diseases such as mildew.

The use of black plastic mulch, especially for bush varieties, can cut down the need for frequent weeding. It may be difficult to put plastic mulch down in areas where running vine types are grown. Organic materials, such as grass clippings or straw, can be used and have the advantage of improving the soil when spaded into the garden at the end of the growing season. Keeping the garden area weed free will ensure that tender seedlings do not have competition for water and nutrients. Squash leaves grow rapidly and will shade out many weeds by mid-season. Spaces between rows can be hoed, but because leaf stalks are brittle and tender, it is advisable to hand weed close to the plants.

Pollination
Gardeners sometimes wonder why many squash flowers do not set fruit. Separate male and female flowers are produced on the same plant or vine, but only the female flowers bear fruit. Female flowers grow on short stalks and have a bulge, the miniature squash, below the petals. Bees serve as the primary means of pollinating the female flowers.

Zucchini Summer Squash ‘Portofino’

Harvest
Summer squash is harvested at an immature stage when the seeds are small and the skin is tender. One test of tenderness is to pierce the skin of the vegetable with your thumbnail. If the skin breaks easily, the fruit is still tender. Squash can be picked any time. Many gardeners prefer the baby or miniature size squash, which is harvested with the blossoms still on the fruit. If the fruit is picked frequently the plant will be encouraged to continue production. It’s easy to miss young fruit hidden by the large leaves. Walk through your patch every few days and lift leaves to see what has been hidden. Some gardeners prefer yellow or white squash since they are easier to spot amid the green foliage. Should summer squash become large however, all is not lost. If the squash is cut in half lengthwise, and the seeds removed, the fruit can be baked. Summer squash can be kept in the refrigerator for five days, if put in a moisture proof container or plastic wrap.

Winter squash is ready for harvesting when the skin is hard and resists thumbnail pressure. Cut stems 1 or 2 inches from the end of the fruit. Twisting or pulling squash from the vine may break open the fruit and make it easier to decay. Usually squash should be picked prior to the first frost. Squash can also be harvested after the first light frost has killed the foliage; squash can even recover quite well from light frost damage to the fruit, which cause small water soaked spots to appear. If the squash has been subjected to temperatures below 50ºF for two weeks, the squash may break down and rot in a few weeks.

Does winter squash need to be cured before storage?
Some sources say winter squashes can be cured to dry and harden their shells completely before they are stored. Also, curing speeds the conversion of starches to sugars, improving the eating quality. Winter squashes that can be cured are butternut, delicious, and hubbard. Acorn types are not recommended for curing. To cure, put squash in a warm, (75-80ºF) well-ventilated place, such as near a furnace or wood stove, or on a sunny, enclosed porch for a week or two. One expert says the higher temperature curing process can be skipped if you can keep a long-term storage temperature of 50-55ºF. Curing also can reduce storage life. Another source recommends picking the squash only when the rinds are well hardened and storing it in a dry, moderately warm place, such as on shelves in a dry basement that has a furnace.

Storage Techniques
The National Garden Bureau recommends storing winter squash at 50-55ºF with humidity of 50 to 75 percent. The storage location should have good air circulation, a uniform temperature and humidity. Under good storage conditions, gardeners can expect acorn squash to store ten to fifteen weeks. Other winter squashes can last up to six months in storage.

Nutrition
Zucchini is lower in calories than many popular summer fruits and vegetables. Corn, tomatoes and watermelon each pack more calories than zucchini’s 22 calories per cup. As summer’s bounty wanes, turn to winter squash for an excellent source of Vitamin A and minerals. Cancer researchers now believe that proper diet may have a strong role in reducing the risk of certain cancers. Research has focused on foods containing Vitamin A and beta-carotene; a precursor of Vitamin A. Beta-carotene is found in yellow and orange vegetables, such as squash. Although about the same in caloric value as potatoes, winter squash contains more than twice the potassium as potatoes.

Pests
Clean, well-maintained gardens are less likely to be infested with pests or infected with diseases. At all times of the year, keep growing areas free of perennial weeds, garden residues and trash. If a plant is badly infected, remove it from the garden, but do not add to the compost pile. After harvest, destroy squash plants to prevent over wintering of pests or viruses.

The National Garden Bureau found three pests that might be a problem to gardeners. They are the striped cucumber beetle, the squash bug and the squash vine borer. Each pest will be discussed for identification and suggested control.

The striped cucumber beetle begins as a white, slender larva with brownish ends. It grows to be an adult about ¼ inch long, yellow to black, striped or spotted. The beetle causes damage in several ways. In the larval stage, it feeds on roots underground. In the adult stage, it feeds on stems, leaves, fruit, and on young plants, which can wilt and sometimes die. The adult beetle carries two diseases of squash, bacterial wilt and squash mosaic virus. Starting seeds or transplants under a cold frame, or covering young plants with netting will help to keep beetles off. Till the soil in the spring to expose any hibernating adults.

As a nymph, the squash bug varies from bright green with a red head and legs, to dark greenish-gray with a black head and legs, and is about 3/8 inch long. As an adult, it is a flat, brownish-gray bug, about 5/8 inch long. Squash bug clusters are shiny brick red and can be found on the undersides of leaves and on stems and unripe fruit. The squash bug does its damage by sucking the juice from leaves and stems, which will wilt and dry up. Young plants are especially vulnerable.

Control this pest by picking up any bugs or egg masses you see on leaves. Lay boards on the ground near plants, bugs will gather under the boards at night. In the morning, lift the boards and destroy any bugs you find.

The squash vine borer is a problem east of the Rockies. The larvae of this pest are up to an inch long, wrinkled, and white with a brown head. Larvae are hatched from eggs laid on stems near the base, in late spring or early summer, by a clear-winged moth. Hatched larvae eat holes in the stems, causing individual stems or the plant to wilt or die. Signs of vine borer infestation include a sudden wilting of the stem, small borer holes at the base of the stem, and green sawdust like material inside stems or in piles near the borer holes.

Watch for, scrape off, and destroy any egg clusters found on stems or undersides of leaves. Split the stem lengthwise and remove or kill the borer. Cover the split with a moist mound of dirt to prevent drying and to induce root growth beyond the point of injury, or wrap the split with gauze and water well. Cut off and destroy very badly damaged stems. Prevent moths from laying eggs by spreading shiny foil under plants in late spring and early summer. The sunlight will reflect to confuse the moths.

Diseases
Bacterial wilt causes a sudden wilting and drying up of squash vines and plants. The bacteria enter the plants and plug up the water vessels of the stems and leaves. Wilting will first be seen in the leaves of the plant. In the early stages of disease, the leaves may wilt in the daytime and then recover at night. Young plants will die rapidly, while older plants may at first be affected only in one stem. Wilt can also cause fruit to wither. The presence of bacterial wilt is indicated by a white, sticky, stringy substance seen when a stem is sliced and pulled apart.

Patty pan Summer Squash ‘Moonbeam’

Bacterial wilt is totally dependent on the cucumber beetle to transmit the bacterium that causes the disease. To control disease, therefore, it is necessary to control the cucumber beetle.

Viruses are indicated by yellowish-green, mottled leaves, stunted vines, and warty, deformed fruit. New leaves may die and plants may decline. Most virus or mosaic disease on squash is caused by cucumber, watermelon or zucchini yellow mosaic viruses. The virus survives in perennial weeds, in the soil, or in the seed of infected plants. Like bacterial wilt, it is spread by aphids or chewing insects such as cucumber beetles. It can also be spread by a gardener moving through or working in the garden under wet or moist conditions, such as after watering.

Powdery mildew is a fungus disease occurring all over the U.S. A powdery white growth appears on the upper surface of the leaves, which will turn yellow and die. The mildew competes with the plant for nutrients, reducing yield and perhaps even killing the plant. Older leaves are affected first. Powdery mildew spreads rapidly and is carried by the wind. It can occur under any weather conditions, but wet or dewy leaves encourage its development. Under warm temperatures it can become a serious problem. To control, strip off older leaves.

Future Breeding
The breeding objectives to be achieved are improved disease/virus tolerance, multiple disease resistance, and in the more distant future, insect and pest resistance. Breeders are increasing the color range of squash fruit, looking for unique or decorative colors. Also important, is to change the plant habit from a vining habit that extends 12 feet to a compact bush habit needing only 2 square feet of garden space. Earliness and yield are primary considerations for all experimental lines prior to an introduction of a new cultivar. Look for more squash cultivars that can be harvested early and used as summer squash, or if left on the plant, the squash forms a protective skin for storage like a winter squash.

This squash fact sheet is provided as a service from the National Garden Bureau.

Marigolds, native to the New World and sacred flower of the Aztecs, journeyed across the Atlantic Ocean twice to travel 3,000 miles north of their center of origin. This lengthy serpentine journey is a testimony to the rugged durability of marigolds. The National Garden Bureau celebrates the marigold, one of the most popular annuals grown in North American gardens.

Growing to 12" (30 cm) this African Marigold cultivar called 'Taishan Yellow' is a delight.

Marigolds are native to the Americas from Argentina north to New Mexico and Arizona. The earliest use of marigolds was by the Aztec people who attributed magical, religious and medicinal properties to marigolds. The National Garden Bureau found the first recorded use of marigolds in the De La Crus-Badiano Aztec Herbal of 1552. The Herbal records the use of Tagetes lucida for treatment of hiccups, being struck by lightening, or “for one who wishes to cross a river or water safely.” The last use confirms the magical properties ascribed to Tagetes.

The Aztecs named their native flower, cempoalxochitl, and bred it for increasingly large blooms. It is suspected that in the 1500’s, native marigold seeds were taken from the Aztecs by early Spanish explorers to Spain. The marigolds were cultivated in Spain and grown in monastery gardens.

From Spain, marigold seeds were transported to France and northern Africa. The taller marigolds, now called African or American, became naturalized in North Africa.

During a 1535 expedition to Tunis, the tall naturalized marigolds were observed and mistaken for native wildflowers. Seed was collected and once again taken to Spain. The newly collected marigold was named Flos Africanus due to its mistaken origin. The tall marigolds were widely known by that name well into the 1700’s. This was a classic case of error in origin.

The name Tagetes has unusual origins as well, tracing back to the revered Italian god, Tages. A grandson of Jupiter, Tages came forth from a clod of earth as a wise and handsome boy. So the American native marigold is commonly called French or African but the genus name Tagetes refers to an Italian god.

Marigolds figure prominently in many religious ceremonies. In Mexico and Latin America, marigold flowers are used to decorate household altars to celebrate All Saints Day and All Souls Day. Flower heads are scattered on relatives’ graves, which can account for the profusion of marigolds in cemeteries.

Marigolds are also used in Hindu religious ceremonies. The National Garden Bureau’s research found the Indian “gendha” to be the T. erecta species. An account in 1963 describes the marigold being used as garlands to decorate village gods during the harvest festival. The traveler recalling the festival also noted the maize and peppers were exactly the same shade of orange-yellow as the marigold. It was as though the corn and peppers were selected or bred to match the marigold flower color. “Gendha” is also reported to be used as a yellow cloth dye in India and Pakistan.

Several hundred years after their initial journey from the Americas to Europe and Africa, marigolds were introduced to North American gardeners. This reunion of sorts did not happen until shortly after the Revolutionary War. Marigolds were just one of many plants shipped to the young country.

Around the turn of this century, sweet peas and asters were the most popular flowers in the United States. Yet both of them were becoming beleaguered by disease and declining overall performance. The time was right for a ‘new’ flower to make its debut. In 1915 David Burpee took over the seed company, which was founded by his father, Washington Atlee Burpee. Young David felt that marigolds held promise and decided to feature them in his catalog and fund research.

Since the 1920’s marigold breeding has developed hundreds of new varieties. The odorless marigolds, hybrids and triploids have all been advancements in breeding. In the last thirty years most of the research, new varieties, and seed production has been accomplished by American breeders and seed companies. Somehow it seems fitting that the marigold would find the breeding emphasis and popularity back in the Americas, its center of origin.

Nomenclature

The genus Tagetes contains 40 species. All are native to the New World with the greatest diversity being found in south central Mexico. Three species have been chosen for research and cultivation as ornamental plants. They are:

T. erecta – commonly called African or American.
T. patula – commonly called French marigolds in spite of American origin.
T. tenuifolia – Signet marigolds, unusual lacy leaves with small single flowers.

A fourth species, T. filifolia or Irish Lace, is not widely grown or known. It is planted for the foliage rather than flowers.

In the plant kingdom, other flowers have had the word marigold added to their common name. This adds to the confusion of the marigold species. Plants such as Caltha palustris, commonly called marsh marigold and Calendula officinalis. pot marigold or cape marigold are not within the Tagetes genus; the focus is placed on T. erecta and T. patula. These two species are the origins of most modern day garden marigolds.

Tagetes patula. the “French marigold”
This dwarf, compact plant species contains the widest color range of marigolds. The flowers can be pure or solid orange, yellow, gold or mahogany red. The color diversity expands with bicolors meaning two colors per flower. Bicolors such as orange and gold, mahogany red and yellow offer a spectrum of color combinations. Petals can be edged with a contrasting color or the color can be placed at the petal base. A clue to identification can be noted here. If you observe a mahogany red bloom, it is a French marigold. The mahogany red color is not available in the T. erecta, L. species.

The French marigold flower form has been divided into five distinct types. The single flower form is the easiest to identify. There are five or eight overlapping petals in a single layer. These are called ray petals. There is a small central disc or tuft of stamens and pistils, the reproductive plant parts.

The anemone flower form contains broad, flattened petals, again overlapping. There are more rows of petals surrounding the central disc and are described as semidouble. The anemone flower form has recently received attention from many breeding programs.

The carnation flower form or fully double has numerous rows of overlapping petals. There can be a small central disc. This was the most common French marigold flower form in the 60’s and 70’s.

The crested flower form is subdivided into double and single crested. The crest or central disc petals are the dominant feature in either flower form. The center contains numerous short petals tightly clustered. Surrounding this crest are the ray petals, broader and flatter. If there is only one row of ray petals surrounding the crest it is considered a single crested flower form. If there are three or four rows of ray petals, it is a double crested French marigold. There have been many recent introductions in the double crested form. At this time there are no hybrid French marigolds.

In the garden, the T. patula marigolds are considered dwarf French. They range in height from 6 to 14 inches when mature. A gardener can choose from 1 inch to 2-1/2 inches for flower size. This species is the most popular of all marigolds. Easy to grow under most weather and soil types, French marigolds are reliable annuals.

Tagetes erecta, African or American Marigolds
This species is characterized by larger leaf size and larger flowers than T. patula. The flower forms are either semidouble or fully double. The semidouble flowers have fewer rows of ray petals than fully double. The size of the flower is the dominant feature. A small flower is 3 inches across. The larger flowers are 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches. The colors are solid, no bicolors occur in this species. The color range is from white and cream to primrose, yellow, gold and orange. There are many F1 hybrid T. erecta cultivars available to home gardeners. Since they are hybrids, they express hybrid vigor by producing numerous flowers on uniform plants with a long flowering season.

Due to the height, most gardeners place T. erecta in the back of a bed or massed in an individual planting area. The plant height at maturity can be 9 inches for a dwarfer variety. The height can be from 9 to 28 inches. The tallest varieties attain a height of 38 to 40 inches and also have longer flower stems suitable for cutting. The T. erecta marigolds are versatile. Fewer plants are required in a garden bed to create the desired result, lavish annual color. Space the plants further apart, 12 to 18 inches or more depending upon the mature height. The marigold plants will fill in the space between them.

T. erecta species are day length sensitive. Each cultivar varies in the response to day length. If a home gardener is growing T. erecta from seed sown after March 1 and wants earlier flowering plants, a short day treatment can be applied. Just cover small seedlings with a light proof cover at 4:00 p.m. and remove at 8:00 a.m. This treatment can be applied for two weeks.

Triploids or 3-N Hybrids
T. erecta x T. patula. This is a wide cross between the African (American) and French species. The cross between species results in a plant that is sterile, unable to reproduce. Since the triploid is not capable of setting seed, the plant produces more flowers. This characteristic is significant when compared to T. patula. Most T. patula plants will decrease flowering under hot summer temperatures. It is called heat stress and shy blooms are the result. The triploid marigolds are not subject to heat stress and continue blooming prolifically regardless of the heat. The triploid blooms are 2 to 2-1/2 inches. Mature garden height can be 10 to 16 inches. The flower form on triploids can be single, double or semidouble. The color range is similar to T. patula with solid colors and bicolor designs. The triploid seed germination is less than the T. patula germination. The first triploid marigold was introduced in 1939. There have been many triploids introduced, improvements in flower size and compact plant habits. Triploids are capable of literally covering the plant with blooms.

How to Grow Marigolds
Marigold seeds are large, easy to handle and germinate reliably in warm, moist soil. T. patula can be sown directly on garden soil after the soil has warmed to 70ºF. Soil should be tilled so that it drains and has a fine, loose texture. Dig a furrow about two inches deep with the corner of a garden hoe. Water the furrow slowly to soak the soil. Scatter seeds in the furrow about an inch apart. Cover lightly with dry soil, sand, or vermiculite. Water again with a fine mist. Continue watering daily with a fine spray for 10 to 14 days when seedlings should appear. As seedlings grow, water less frequently but apply more water to encourage deep root growth. The T. patula seedlings can be transplanted when small to other garden locations. If garden soil is fertile and rich in organic matter, supplemental feeding might not be necessary. Overfeeding or a rich organic soil can result in vegetative growth and a lack of flowering. T. patula will flower in 6 to 12 weeks from sowing, depending upon variety and weather conditions.

T. erecta marigolds are best started indoors and transplanted into the garden. Sow seeds eight weeks prior to planting outdoors in warm garden soil. Cover seeds lightly and maintain uniform moisture. Transplant into larger containers at the 3 to 4 true leaf stage. Provide as much direct sunlight as possible while indoors.

Disease
The National Garden Bureau found two diseases that might infect marigolds in gardens. These two are aster yellows and botrytis, the most common problems encountered by North American gardeners. Many gardeners will not encounter any problems or diseases with marigolds. The marigold aroma, produced by oil glands on the undersides of leaves, is thought to repel some harmful insects. Thusly, marigolds are one of the most reliable annuals any gardener can grow for summer color and durability.

Aster Yellows
As the name indicates, this disease affects asters and marigolds as well as many other garden flowers. The disease is spread by six-spotted leafhoppers, which become infected by feeding on infected weeds. The leafhoppers spread the disease as they feed. The higher the number of leafhoppers, the higher the chance of plant infection.

The symptoms include a yellowing of the foliage, pale greenish yellow abnormally shaped buds and blooms, and an overall stunting of the plant. A diseased plant stands out from among healthy ones by its lack of flowers and oddly shaped plant. By the time the buds and blooms become misshapen, there is no alternative but to remove the plant. The only control over this disease is to control the population of leafhoppers, an unlikely solution at best.

Botrytis
This fungus, Botrytis cinerea, thrives in cool, moist conditions attacking injured tissues, dying blooms or foliage. The fungus is a mold that produces masses of gray spores that are spread by wind or water. Botrytis usually affects double marigold blooms late in the growing season when heavy dew and cool temperatures create the perfect environment for this fungus growth. It appears as brown, dying tissue at the base of the flower petal. If allowed to grow, the fungus can spread rapidly to infect healthy plants. The best control is to remove spent flower heads from the plant. This is particularly important near the end of the growing season.

Marigolds and Nematodes
Nematodes are a diverse group of microscopic worms. Some nematodes are beneficial to the soil or plants, others invade or penetrate plant roots and feed on nutrients thereby robbing the plant of them. Some of the harmful nematodes can be reduced by marigolds growing in the soil. Recent scientific studies have shown that chemical compounds produced by most Tagetes are toxic or antagonistic to certain harmful nematodes. Evidence suggests that the chemical compounds are toxic to nematodes both upon entry into the root system or in the vicinity of the roots. The National Garden Bureau concludes that Tagetes contributes to the control of harmful nematode pollutions in garden soil.

Container Gardening
Marigolds adapt well to container gardening. Remember to match the mature plant size to the container size. The T. patula French marigolds can be grown in smaller containers due to their smaller plant size. One French marigold will fill a 6-inch pot. French marigolds can be planted with vegetables in the same container. Combining various cultivars requires more attention to the water and fertilizer needs of the plants. French marigolds will thrive in larger containers such as wine barrels, urns, or redwood planters. One consistent rule for all container gardens is to ensure that water drains from the soil. Use containers with holes on the bottom or sides.

Both T. tenuifolia, signet, and T. erecta, African or American marigolds can brighten any patio with bold color grown in containers. Signet marigolds require a 6 to 10 inch container while the African or American needs more space and soil. Use a 12 to 15 inch diameter container at least 18 inches deep for the mid height range T. erecta.

Future Breeding
America continues to lead in the breeding advancements of marigolds. The two Tagetes species receiving the most breeding and research effort continue to be the T. patula, French and T. erecta, African or American. Breeders are selecting marigolds for earlier flowering with specific improved characteristics such as increased flower size. The single marigold flower form has been given recent attention with several new varieties introduced. Crosses between species such as the T. patula x T. erecta or triploid marigolds will continue to be improved for germination and seed vigor. Someday, breeders will be able to introduce the T. patula mahogany red genes into the T. erecta species for huge 3-inch red blooms. Or the reverse, introduce the white T. erecta genes into a dwarf French marigold. The National Garden Bureau is confident the breeders will continue to select marigolds that will find a featured position in America’s gardens. Whether tall or short, single or double flowered, marigolds will flourish across North America.

Starting seeds is an extremely rewarding activity and even trying to germinate some of the challenging seeds can be very successful if a little research is done to find out which techniques should be used.

If certain basic conditions are met, most annual and vegetable seeds do not require special treatment to achieve a high percentage of germination. The seed, which must be viable and mature, needs a proper balance of environmental conditions (moisture, temperature, light and air). Some more challenging seeds have natural inhibitors to germination and require special treatment. Such inhibitors include: a small dust-like size; a hard moisture-proof seed coat; a reluctance to germinate until maturity; a chemical that must be leached away; or specific requirements of light or darkness. These seeds may seem like they require extraordinary efforts to get them to grow, but these protections are adaptations which ensure germination at an appropriate time in the wild. Once they are known, then they can be overcome.

Seeds that are a challenge to both home gardeners and professional growers will often have poor or maybe even no germination unless a strict regimen is followed. Such seeds need extra attention to germinating or growing temperatures, moisture and light levels. Otherwise they loose their viability very fast after harvesting. Begonia seed will be dust-like, if the seed is not coated or pelleted, and will be very hard to sow. It also needs extra light during the day from January through March to grow to a size where it can be planted in the garden in early June. The shade loving annual, Browallia needs to be started extra early because it grows very slowly. Dahlberg daisy has irregular germination. Eustoma hates cool temperatures and must be germinated at 77 degrees F. (25 degrees C.).  Start this plant early and sow it directly into deep pots to accommodate an extensive tap root. Madagascar Periwinkle must be keep warm and in darkness until germination is complete. Do not overwater it or subject it to cool temperatures or it will sulk. Osteospermum must be kept cool and dry. Verbena usually has poor germination rates that could be as low as 30%. Use fresh seed that has been chilled for 1 week. Water the seeding pots and soil the day before sowing but do not water them after sowing because the seed is susceptible to rot if moisture levels are high. Cover the seeding containers with black plastic and keep them at 25 degrees C. Chill snapdragon seed for several days before sowing. Soak morning glory seed overnight to soften their coats. Germinate melampodium & mimulus at a cool 65 deg. F. (18 degrees C.). African marigolds should be covered after germination with an opaque material from 5 pm until 8 am for the first 2 weeks to simulate short daylength and produce better flowering. Nasturtium do not need any more than a starter fertilizer after they have been transplanted or else lots of foliage will be produced at the expense of flowers.

Seeds that are very small, such as fibrous begonia, petunia, coleus, dianthus or snapdragons, are often available as pelleted seed. This process coats each seed to make them easier to handle, and germinate faster. The extra cost of these seeds is worth it. Do not cover these seeds when sowing. Simply press them gently into the soil. Small seeds that are not pelleted can be mixed with horticultural sand and sown straight from the seed packet. Tip the packet on its edge and gently tap it with a pencil. The seeds will march down the packet and can be sown evenly spaced in a neat line.

Seeds with a hard seed coat that will not absorb moisture must go through a process of scarification to achieve good germination rates. The trick is to gently abrade the seed coat without damaging the interior seed parts. Depending on the size of the seed and the thickness of the seed coat, a knife, file or sandpaper can be used to scarify. Small seed can be soaked for 24 hours before sowing. This will soften the seed coat and shorten the time for needed for germination. Plant these seeds immediately after soaking. Commercial seed suppliers will use a scarifying machine or apply an acid to wear down the seed coat. One advantage of seeds with a hard seed coat is that they have a long storage life.

Stratification is a process where seeds are subjected to moisture and cool or cold conditions in order to get them to germinate. This is necessary for seeds that are immature when they are harvested. Many perennials and woody plants fall into this group. To get them to germinate, seeds are mixed with moist sphagnum moss or a seeding media and placed in a sealed, clear plastic bag. This is placed into either the refrigerator or freezer as instructed. After the recommended time has elapsed, the seeds can be sown into a seeding container. An alternative is to sow the seeds directly into a seeding container, cover it with a clear plastic bag, label and seal it and then place the whole thing into the refrigerator or freezer.

One of the most problematic diseases that attacks seedlings is called “damping-off.” This is a fungus disease that could be lurking in the soil or on seedcoats. The disease can even move from one seed container to another by hitching a ride through the water. Damping-off strikes very fast and without much warning. One day your newly germinating seedlings are fine and the next day some of them have toppled as if they were severed by a miniature chain saw. There are several tips to keep this disease under control. Use sterilized soil with good drainage to start your seedlings. Sow your seeds so that there is some space between each seed – do not overcrowd them. Make sure that there is good air circulation. You may have to set up a small fan to gently circulate the air around. Avoid overwatering your seedlings. Sowing seeds into rows will help reduce the chances that all of your seedlings will succumb to this disease. If the disease appears, a row or part of a row can be removed to stop the disease from spreading. Commercial fungicides for damping-off can be used to control this disease.

Once seedlings have grown to a stage where they have their first or second set of true leaves then they can be transplanted into their own pot or cell pack. The true leaves will normally be the ones just after the first two large food storage cotyledon leaves. Transplanting seedlings will give them more room to develop and will help to ensure that they have a strong root development.

Soils used for transplanting can be of a different recipe than the seeding media. It is less critical that this soil be of a fine consistency, but it must still be sterilized. When selecting the new growing container, remember that the smaller the volume of soil that annuals have to grow roots, the faster they will develop.

Many plants are available as a collection of mixed colours. Some colours are not as strong as the others. When transplanting seedlings into their own container select a variety of sizes to ensure that all colours are represented. This advice is contrary to the natural tendency of selecting the biggest and strongest seedlings. If this is done, then there is sometimes a risk of increasing the percentages of certain colours.

Before transplanting, fill your new containers with soil and moisten it. Also moisten your seedlings. Next choose a thin narrow tool to help untangle seedling roots. A pencil, ice pick, thin bamboo stake, chop stick, commercially manufactured dibble, or similar tool will work. Label your new container with the plant name and date.

Images coutesy of Wikipedia.com and used under the creative commons license.

The first leaves of seedlings emerging

When should annual flower seeds be sown? Sowing dates are a little flexible because many factors have an influence on a seedlings rate of growth. These include light levels, day and night temperatures, fertilizer application, soil type, timing of transplanting, moisture levels, and seed age. The best advice is to use the dates below only as a guideline and make a chart that is specific to your conditions. The following sowing dates are determined by counting backward from the average frost date – in this case I have picked the first week in June. If you feel that it will be safe to plant annuals outside during the last week of May, then subtract one week. One of the fastest growing annual vines are morning glories which, if sown on May 1st, will probably be ready for outdoor planting within 4 weeks. Cosmos should be sown on April 18th, 6 weeks before planting outside. There are several annuals, such as amaranthus, sunflower, sanvitalia, and zinnia, that should be sown on April 12th. Annuals that require 8 weeks of indoor growing time should be started on April 5. These include melampodium, mimulus, nicotiana, marigold, and nasturtium. Brachycome, gomphrena, portulaca, and thunbergia are annuals that should be sown near the end of March. Annuals that require 10 weeks to reach a size where they can be planted safely outside are ageratum, celosia, cleome, annual phlox, and salvia. Sow annual dianthus, coleus, impatiens, and nierembergia indoors on March 15. Gazania, lobelia, petunia, and dusty miller require 12 weeks before they can be moved outdoors and should be sown in early March. Snapdragons, ivy geraniums, seed geraniums, and pansies are some of the slowest growing annuals and require 14 or more weeks before they can be planted outdoors. Start them around the middle of February. The slowest growing group of annuals includes begonia, browallia, and eustoma. These plants need to be sown in early February so that they can have 16 or more weeks to grow before being planted outside.

Starting seeds is addictive and can quickly fill up your light garden or windowsill. Finding space and containers is sometimes a challenge. The most important requirement of a seeding container is to hold soil. Commercial seeding trays can be purchased as a complete kit (full-sized or window sill version) which contains a water-holding tray, cell pack inserts, and a clear plastic lid. Gardeners don’t necessarily have to purchase new equipment for this project if they have some shallow plastic or clay pots handy. These can be used with a plastic bag to simulate a miniature greenhouse. Some gardeners who find they have more seeds or seedlings than pots or flats become very resourceful. They use margarine or yogurt containers, egg shells halved or styrofoam cups. All of these can make great seeding containers as long as they have drainage holes.

Tomato seedling

Soil is critical to the success of starting seeds. It must be sterilized, light-weight, and have a fine texture. It also must have a small nutrient supply, hold moisture, but also provide good drainage. The simplest way to meet these requirements is to purchase soil that is manufactured specifically for starting seeds.

Should seeds be covered? Most seeds will germinate well if they are covered with a thin layer of soil. This soil provides moisture and darkness which is required for good seed germination. Seeds that need absolute darkness should also be covered with a dark garbage bag to block all light. Upon germination, all seedlings will stretch looking for light. Check your pots daily for emerging green stems or roots. This is the beginning stages of germination. Change the dark cover to a clear plastic one if more than 40% of the seeds have germinated.

A small group of plant seeds must remain uncovered in order to germinate well. They require light to trigger germination. Some of the annuals that are in this group are: ageratum, begonia, brachycome, browallia, coleus, sweet alyssum, mimulus, nicotiana, petunia, portulaca, salvia, dusty miller, and torenia. When sowing these seeds, scatter them on the soil surface. Gently press them down into the soil so that they have good contact but are still exposed to the light. A clear plastic cover will keep the humidity high near the seeds and increase germination time.

A few annuals need to be lightly covered with soil to have the best germination results. They have to be as close to the surface as possible for exposure to light and they have to have a thin covering of soil to maintain humidity and moisture. Keep the soil surface moist. Some of the plants that should be lightly covered are: amaranthus, Madagascar periwinkle, cleome, dianthus, heliotrope, impatiens, melampodium, nierembergia, marigolds, verbena, and pansy.

For other annuals not listed above, check their seed packet or a reference book for instructions. Most likely they will be in the group that needs to be lightly covered.

Germination and growing temperature requirements are often different from one annual to another. In a lot of cases the minimum night temperatures are the critical ones. Refer to seed packets, seed catalogues or a reference book for information on what temperatures are ideal for optimum plant growth.

Some annuals don’t like to be disturbed – they resent being transplanted and will sulk. These plants should be sown into a bigger pot to reduce the amount of shock during transplanting. Some seeds can be sown into fiber pots to avoid disturbing them later since they can be planted outside while still in the pot. Eschscholzia, morning glory, nasturtiums, phlox, sunflowers, sweet peas, thunbergia, and zinnia should be sown directly into their final indoor growing container. Place 2-3 seeds in each cell or container and later thin the seedlings to a single strong plant.

A few other annuals produce plants that are too small to handle, such as portulaca and sweet alyssum. Several seeds of these can be sown into each final growing container. No thinning is needed in this case.

Proper misting and watering are important for good germination and plant health. Check the soil moisture level at least once a day. If a seed is allowed to dry out after it starts to soak up moisture, it will die. Use tepid (room temperature) water that has been allowed to sit for 12 hours. For delicate seedlings, a mister will gently apply water to the soil without causing injury from wash-outs or fallen plants. If pots or trays of seeds are very dry they can be placed into a laundry sink with a shallow amount of water. The pots will gradually soak up water from the bottom and the seeds or seedlings will not be disturbed. Once the top of the soil is barely moist, remove the pots from the sink and drain them.

Novice gardeners and children can have great success with starting seeds indoors by selecting plants that are easy to grow. Marigolds, geraniums (takes a long time), nasturtiums, sunflowers, morning glory (soak the seeds overnight), and sweet peas (rub the seed with sandpaper then soak the seeds overnight before sowing) are excellent suggestions.

Sow more seeds than you need for the garden. The average germination rate is between 60 and 70 percent, so plan to sow 50% more seed than you require as plants. If you end up with more plants than you can use, donate them to a local horticulture or gardening society or give them to your neighbours.

Extra seeds can be stored for next year in a sealed glass jar in the refrigerator. This helps keep the moisture levels high in the seeds. Remember seeds are living things. Viability will decrease at different speeds for each seed type. Some seeds can be stored for up to 5 years while others should be purchased fresh every year. Begonia, impatiens, onion, peppers, and viola have shorter storage viability than tomato, sweet pea and zinnia.

The transplanting process is very simple with two main rules. Never hold your seedlings by the stem. Use your fingers to grasp only the leaves in order to avoid causing serious damage to the fragile stem. Use your transplanting tool or your finger to create a hole in the centre of new container to the depth of your seedlings roots. Carefully separate one seedling from the rest and plant it into the hole. Plant it at the same depth as it was growing. Gently firm the soil around the roots to remove any air pockets. Once again, be careful of the fragile stem. The second rule is to water the seedling after transplanting. Then place it under a light garden or cover it for a few days if it is on a sunny windowsill.

First two images copyright TheLaptopGardener.com, last two images courtesy of Wikipedia.com and used under the creative commons license.

African violets and members of the gesneriad family such as the gloxinias, Streptocarpus, and lipstick plants will thrive in conditions that are easy to achieve in most homes once some basic environmental conditions are addressed.   Window sill gardening is not free of challenges, but these are not insurmountable and overcoming them makes the rewards that much nicer.  One of these challenges is dealing with light levels that vary depending on the window orientation and time of year.  Indoor gardeners may have to use a compromised window for plant growth that is not the ideal situation.  Supplemental (artificial) light may be the answer to this problem.  Another challenge is the temperature of the growing area.  The best light might be up against the window which is also the coldest location.  Gesneriads are sensitive to cold and hot temperatures that are beyond a comfortable range.  Indoor environments during the winter also have the challenge of low humidity levels.  This is one of the easier challenges to overcome by using a humidifier. 

 
Normal home temperatures that are comfortable for people are well suited for gesneriads.  During the daytime, temperatures should be between 20 and 25 degrees (67-75 F.) Celsius for most of these plants.  A five degree drop in night time temperatures is ideal and may even encourage blooming.  It is critical for gesneriads to avoid excessively hot or cold drafts from an open door, fireplace or furnace vent.  Generally, a comfortable environment for humans will be suitable for these plants. 

 Most gesneriads are from tropical parts of the world, although there are some semi-hardy members such as Ramonda which is from the high altitude mountainous regions of Asia, Europe, and South America.  The most common member of the gesneriad group is the African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha) which is from the Tanzania and Kenya region of east Africa.  African violets in their native habitat grow on the banks of streams or as epiphytes on trees.  About 2,000 cultivars in white, pink, red, blue, violet, cream and yellow colours have been developed as a popular indoor plant.  Many advancements have been made to the original plant found in Tanzania which was a light to dark blue colour.  Other gesneriad family members are the trailing lipstick plants (Aeschynanthus species) which are epiphytes from the sub-tropical forests of the Himalayas, south China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and New Guinea.  From the tropical rain forest of the “New World” in Brazil come the goldfish plant (Nematanthus) and gloxinias (Sinningia species).  Gloxinias are gesneriads that have a single fleshy tuber. When the dry or cold season arrives in their native environment, the foliage dies down but the tuber remains alive.  When weather returns that is more suitable for growth, the plant starts to grow from the energy reserves in the tuber.  An interesting plant that is a tuberous gesneriad is the cupid’s bower or hot water plant (Achimenes).  This easy-to-grow plant is dormant during the winter and springs to life in the spring.

 African violets, the most famous gesneriad family member, were discovered by Baron Walter Von Saint-Paul in 1892 in Tanzania.  Upon its arrival to Europe it received the botanical name of Saintpaulia ionantha.  The genus name obviously commemorating its discoverer, but the species name is from the Greek language meaning “having flowers like the violet’s”.  This gave rise to the common name of African violet which give the impression that this plant is a true violet.  African violets are not a violet; they just looked like one to people back in the early 1900’s.   These plants soon became favoured because of its small size, free-flowering abilities, and ease of growth.  This has continued for over a century as more and more people are attracted to the wide variety of cultivars now available.  African violets have now become the most popular flowering indoor plant.  They now come in white, blue, purple, red, and yellow colours with bicolor, ruffled, or double petals.  The foliage might be green, reddish or variegated and leaf margins are sometimes finely serrated, ruffled, or lobed.  To add another dimension, there are now very popular African violets that are miniature and even trailing types. 

 One of the keys to getting African violets to bloom is to have adequate light levels.  Many gesneriads will not produce flower buds if the light intensity is not high enough.  The amount of light that is present on a cloudy winter day is the minimum amount needed to produce blooms.  To ensure that plants receive as much of this natural light as possible, set them in a south or southwest facing window during the winter months.  They must be moved to an east or north window during the summer months because the stronger rays may cause damage to the leaves.  In the summer, an alternative to a south window is to set the plants back away from the window or behind sheer drapes.  Another note is that the sun’s rays striking African violets from one side will cause the plant to grow lop-sided.   Turn your plants one quarter of a revolution each week to preserve their symmetry.  An easier solution might be to grow African violets (and other gesneriads) under fluorescent lights.  This is the only solution for gardeners who do not have south facing windows during the winter.  Fluorescent lights will provide an even distribution of light and can be used with a timer to ensure that African violets get more than 12 hours of light so that they will continuously bloom. 

 African violets are native to an environment that is warm and humid with temperatures that do not drop below 18 degrees Celsius (65 F.).  Keeping temperatures around 25 (77 F.) during the day and five degrees lower at night will be sufficient for good growth and flowering.  Dropping the temperature five degrees at night will produce larger flowers with more petals and brighter colours.  The ideal humidity, between 40 and 60 percent, is often a challenge to achieve during the winter.  Low humidity levels will cause leaves to curl and become crisp at the edges.  Bloom quality may decline too.  To help solve this problem, place a shallow tray of water near the plants so that it will evaporate and humidify the air, group plants together, or use a humidifier nearby.

 Watering African violets the right way is a technique that will pay off with big flower rewards.  Use room temperature water that has sat for several hours to let the gaseous water treatment chemicals leave.  Water early in the day so that the plant is not excessively wet during the night.  Water as soon as the soil surface feels dry to the touch.  Add enough water to the top of the pot so that it runs out the bottom and into the saucer below.  Let this sit for about one hour and then drain the water from the saucer.  African violet roots are susceptible to damage from overwatering, drought, and cold water.  Some gardeners insist that watering from the bottom is the correct way to water gesneriads.  This can be done if careful attention is paid to the amount of time plants sit in the water.  Root damage can happen fast.  Watering from the top also flushes out fertilizer salts so that they do not build up in the soil. 

 Fertilizers for flowering indoor houseplants should have a higher phosphorous number.  This is the middle number of the ratio.  Fertilizing with a weak solution every time the plant is watered will provide a more constant feeding for the plant.  Use one-quarter strength (or less) depending on the frequency of watering.  A dormant plant that is not blooming or coming into bloom should not have any fertilizer. 

African violets (and most gesneriads) should be grown in a sterilized, light soil mixture that is peat-moss based.  Air space in the soil is very important for healthy roots.  The best pots for growing gesneriads are the ordinary plastic ones.  These will hold moisture well and are light to pick up.  Clay pots may accumulate salts around the rim that could damage African violet stems.  African violets can stay in the same (3-4 inch) pot for years because these plants do not have an extensive root system. In time the plant, with its overhanging leaves, may seem very out of scale to the pot.  When the plant is 3 times wider than the pot, it is time to move it up to the next larger sized pot.  Repotting should take place in the spring.  Let the plant dry out slightly so that the leaf petioles are somewhat flexible before repotting or else they may snap off.

The lipstick plant is a trailing gesneriad family member botanically called Aeschynanthus.  Most of the flowers in this group are bright red or reddish-orange and tubular in shape.  One type, Aeschynanthus lobbianus has a flower structure when in bud that looks like a burgundy lipstick case that is winding open to reveal bright red lipstick inside. 

Sinningia (gloxinia) is a large and diverse group of plants that contains the large showy trumpet flowers of the florist gloxinia.  Also included are miniature plants that are not much larger than a quarter. 

 Episcia are a gesneriad group that are grown more for their colourful foliage than for their small, single flowers.  Episcia ‘Cleopatra’ is one of the favourites because of its leaves which are pale pink, white, and light green.  It is very striking but a challenge to grow because of its requirements for a terrarium-like environment with warm temperatures, constant moisture and high humidity.  Other Episcias, such as the ones with coppery-green foliage and red flowers are easier to grow.  Treat these like African violets. 

 Newish to the gesneriad scene are the Chiritas which are mostly from damp, semi-shady sites in tropical China.  Some people like Chirita sinensis for its leathery, silver foliage, but other members of this family are also attractive for their beautiful lavender, white or yellow miniature Gloxinia-like flowers. 

 The gesneriad genus called Nematanthus sometimes has a common name of gold fish plant for its small orange, puffy flowers.  The orange fish shaped blooms are a nice contrast to the glossy dark green foliage of their mainly trailing plants. A minimum temperature of 15 degrees Celsius will keep these plants sporadically blooming through the winter. 

 Achimenes are easy to grow tuberous plants that are dormant during the winter and have showy blooms in a wide range of colours during the summer.  If these plants inadvertently become too dry during their flowering phase they will just go into dormancy early.  Let them rest in a dry location with temperatures above freezing and they will be ready to bloom the following summer.  This plant has a common name of hot water plant because water is just about all that this plant needs to spring to life.

 Dainty tubular blooms that hand down from downy, upright plants are characteristics of the Kohleria genus.  This plant also has an underground rhizome and goes dormant similarly to Achimenes. 

 The Streptocarpus group of plants are becoming increasingly popular for people who want easy-to-grow houseplants.  These plants, also known as cape primrose, are best grown in the same conditions as African violets.  They have long strap-like leaves and numerous showy blooms held high above the leaves. 

 Columnea are mainly trailing plants that have masses of brilliant flowers cascading from along the stems.  For maximum production of flowers, water this plant sparingly during the fall for six weeks.  Once flower buds appear, water columnea regularly.

Pretty Pansies

It is instant color time in the garden with the addition of pansies, Johnny jump-up (Viola tricolor), or violas! These short-lived perennials are excellent autumn and winter grown plants for the garden. They are usually treated as winter annuals and enjoyed while the tropical plants spend the winter inside or dormant.

The cheerful, round blooms of pansies clear, penciling lines or with blotched faces. What’s not to like!

Many pansies are faintly scented with early morning or dusk being the best time to give them a sniff test. The yellow or blue pansies are reputed to have the strongest scent. Plant many together to concentrate their fragrance or plant them in containers close to a main door.

Great for containers, garden beds, window boxes, etc. with a huge range of colors to coordinate for your designing pleasure.

Pansies love the cool & cold weather. Snow and ice may temporarily slow down their blooms but it won’t stop these tough winter wonders. Many series are hardy to 10 degrees F. Plants were totally encased in ice during our last ice storm and they bounced right back in my garden. Some pansies may exhibit a purple coloration on their leaves during cold weather. Pansies will thrive until the weather turns hot. Most pansies do not tolerate hot and dry weather conditions.

The best conditions to grow pansies are in full sun to part shade with well-drained, organic, compost rich soil. Plant them in the garden anytime from late November (whenever it starts to cool down) through early spring.

Pansies are usually trouble-free but sometimes are attacked by downy or powdery mildew, crown or root rot. Slugs, snails and aphids are potential pests if pansies are grown in shady and moist conditions.

Water them well after planting and mulch to conserve moisture. Fertilize once a month with an all-purpose flowering plant food. Deadhead the finished blooms to keep the plant blooming.

Did you know that there is a town called Pansy in Texas? It is in Crosby County and is named for the attractive flower. Did you also know that pansy flowers are edible (use the ones grown organically).

Cultivars:

Accord Series (large) 8 colors
Crown Series (medium) 9 colors
Crystal Bowl Series (multiflora) 11 colors
Imperial Series (medium) 5 color mixes
Joker Series (medium) 4 colors
Lyric Series (large) 5 colors
Majestic Giants Series (large) 6 colors
Maxim Series (multiflora) 14 colors
Medallion Series (large) 6 colors
Padparadja (multiflora) 1 color
Roc Series (medium) 9 colors
Springtime Series (medium) 17 colors
Swiss Giants (large) old fashioned 5 colors
Universal Series (multiflora) 13 colors

Frangipani blooming in Zilker Botanical Garden, Austin, Texas in May

The plant is known as Plumeria, named in honor of the seventeenth century French botanist, Charles Plumier who travelled to the Antilles and Central America recording many plants and animals. At the age of 16 he joined the religious order of the Minims in France and devoted himself to mathematics and physics. After being sent to Rome, Plumier began to study botany and once he returned to France, he began work exploring the coasts of Provence and Languedoc. At the age of 43 he went on his first botanical expedition to the French Antilles. It was a success and he was appointed royal botanist. During his three botany expeditions he was the first to identify and describe the beautiful Fuchsia. The genus name in his honor was originally spelled Plumiera (and some still use this spelling).

The common name, frangipani comes from a sixteenth-century Italian nobleman, the Marquis Frangipani who invented a method of perfuming gloves that came to be known as Frangipani gloves. When the Plumeria flower was discovered, the scent reminded people of the fragrance Frangipani used to scent gloves and so the name began to be associated with the plant too. Another theory for the frangipani name is that the white Plumeria sap resembles the French product frangipanier, a type of coagulated milk.

Plumeria is just a small genus of 8 species originally native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas. The plant was frequently transported by Spanish Catholic priests as they travelled to new areas. Each species has different leaf shapes and growth habits. Many species have naturalized in southern and southeast Asia.

Plumeria is in the Apocynanceae (dogbane) family with oleander and periwinkle. The family contains mainly tall trees found in the tropical rainforests. Plumeria is a deciduous shrubs or small tree here in Central Texas, but in tropical regions Plumeria can grow up to 30 feet high and wide. Plumeria, like Oleander has some poisonous properties, but is not nearly as bad as some of the other family members. The milky sap, found in all plant parts is irritating to the skin, just like many Euphorbias.

Frangipani blooming in Langkawi, Malaysia

The beautiful flowers are admired for their deep and rich in coloration and beautiful shading. Mostly Plumeria flowers can be found in combinations of whites, yellow, corals, pinks, and purples from March through October. New curly blooms have been introduced to add a new twist to the pinwheel effect of the blooms as they unfold. Some cultivars have up to 200 blooms in a cluster (others only 50). The flowers are used for making leis in Hawaii.

Flowers are most fragrant at night in order to lure the sphinx moths to come pollinate them. But, interestingly no nectar is contained in the flower. The moths pollinate the flowers as they search from one to the next looking for the non-existent nectar.

Frangipani can be propagated by taking 4 inch to 1 foot cuttings of the thick stems, allow them to dry off for two weeks (like a cactus) and then sticking them into a gallon pot of a mixture containing 2/3 perlite and 1/3 peat or potting soil. Add a coarse draining material (like pea gravel) on the top 1 inch of the pot. Water well, then let the soil dry before watering again. Spring cuttings will take about 90 days to produce a full root ball – when they can be transplanted.
Plumeria seeds are not true to the parent plant, but if you are willing to experiment to find new colors – this is the way. The reds and pinks apparently reveal the greatest variation in color. The few Plumeria seeds produced have a long narrow wing attached to the seed. Insert the seed so that it is under the soil and the wing is sticking above the soil. Keep the potting soil moist and germination should take place in about 21 days.

Grow Plumeria in full sun (or at least 6 hours) for the best blooms. It is one of the most sun and wind tolerant of the tropical plants. Plant it in well drained (particularly during the winter), organic soils. Prune the plant during the active growing season. Try to prune for a pleasing shape but this is not often possible because of the natural way that Plumeria grow. The leaves tend to grow only near the branch tips and few branches are produced. Pests are few, but sometimes scale is a problem and rot when too much moisture is present around the roots.

Fragrant Frangipani at sunset in Langkawi

Plumeria are not very winter hardy – only to zone 9. Protect from cold damage when temperatures dip below 40 deg. F. and especially if frost is forecast. Use frost cloth or mulch inground to ensure that the roots will overwinter in Central Texas. Grow in a pot and move to a protected location. Often the cooler weather will cause the leaves to drop in the fall. If temps drop below 32 deg. F. plant stems turn to mush. Some frangipani growers bury their plants underground to protect them from the winter cold temperatures. The cultivar ‘Texas Sunshine’ is reputed to be one of the most cold tolerant (to 25 deg. F). Other supposedly hardy Plumerias are ‘Celadine”, ‘Aztec Gold’ and ‘Samoan Fluff.’

There are over 300 named varieties of Plumeria.